Transcendentalist

A Modern Day Transcendentalist The story of Chris McCandless is an inspiring one. Transcendentalism is the act of finding inner peace and relaxing. David Henry Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson are two authors who are transcendentalists. The idea of transcendentalism was started in America in the 1850’s. Chris McCandless is a college student who decides to become a transcendentalist. Chris McCandless is an example of a modern day transcendentalist because he fits the ideals of Walden, Self Reliance, and Civil Disobedience.One of the big ideas of Walden is that a person needs to separate himself from society to inner peace. Thoreau writes â€Å"I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life. † Chris McCandless fits this idea because he goes into the woods to find inner peace after college along with other adventures in the desert and Denali National Park. Another big idea of Walden is a person only needs to live with th e essentials. Thoreau writes â€Å"†¦ to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms. Chris McCandless fits this idea because he only brings a backpack, a gun, a bag of rice, and a sleeping bag into the woods. Nature has a lot to teach is also a big idea of Walden. Thoreau writes â€Å"†¦and see if I could not learn what it had to teach. † Chris McCandless fits this idea because he learns a lot of survival techniques while in nature and he lives and dies while in nature. One of the big ideas in Self Reliance is trust yourself. Emerson writes â€Å"Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. Chris McCandless fits this idea because whenever he is offered help he declines it. Another big idea of Self Reliance is do not be afraid to be different and do not conform to others standards. Emerson writes â€Å"Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist. † Chris McCandless fits this idea because he does not care what other people think about him and he did not conform to others expectations. For example his parents want him to go to college and he decides not to because he wants to go into the wild. Do not envy what others have is another big idea of Self Reliance.Emerson writes â€Å"There is a time in every man’s education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance. † Chris McCandless fits this idea because rejects supplies, his parents, his car, and help. One of the big ideas of Civil Disobedience is laws do not have to be followed because each person should make their own laws. Thoreau writes â€Å"That government is best which governs not at all. † Chris McCandless fits this idea because he goes to Mexico without a passport, he kayaks into Mexico, he burns his money, and he train hops.Another big idea of Civil Disobedience is the majority is not always right and that people should follow their own beliefs and thoughts. Thoreau writes â€Å"When the power is once in the hand s of the people, a majority are permitted, and for a long period continue, to rule, is not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority, but because they are physically the strongest. † Chris McCandless fits this idea because people may not support his way of life because it is against how the majority live.He lives differently in a lot of people’s eyes because he lives out in the woods instead of being with society. Based on his belief in the ideals of Walden, Self Reliance, and Civil Disobedience, Chris McCandless is a modern day transcendentalist. This type of lifestyle is not all that abnormal. Many people in the world live just like Chris McCandless. They all want to get away of society and live peacefully. The story of Chris McCandless gained popularity in the late 1990’s. One reason people are drawn to this story is because McCandless is a young guy and lives such a different lifestyle.

Culture Shock Essay

Having been raised in a traditional Mexican family, I thought that growing up I had a good understanding about the Mexican culture and families. However, I was seriously mistaken upon returning to Mexico for a family vacation. I was expecting to go across the border and experience things similar to what we have in the States, but that was not the case. The experience is completely different and charmingly appealing. The infrastructure is nothing compered to what we have here, the family values are very different and how people would spend their time. When I first arrived in Mexico I was shocked at their way of living. Just seeing the buildings that they call home was enough. The roads were just as bad. Seeing these things for the first time was a he eye opener. The houses were practically falling apart. As we were driving through the town to get to my aunts house, I was thinking to myself â€Å"So this what my parents called home.† And at that moment I started to feel more thankful for everything I had back home. In Mexico I also realized that the value family over individualism. For example, after being at my aunt’s house for a while I asked my cousin if she ever planned to get married (that’s me knowing that she is already 32 years old). She replied to me â€Å"No I don’t, because then that would mean that I would have to move out with my husband and leave my parents.† I was completely shocked by this because I never thought of my parents in that way. In Mexico they find it shameful to put elderly people in nursing homes. This made me think â€Å"Would I be a horrible person if I dare to think of putting and older family member I a nursing home?† When I was in Mexico I was so surprised that I would have this part of a  culture shock. People in Mexico do almost the exact same thing that we do here for fun (depending on their money situations). They go to the movies, and parties and they go to the mall that they have there. Everyone in this world goes through culture shock at one point in his or her life. And it usually is with another culture completely different than theirs. Mine just happened to be the same as my culture. After experiencing this culture shock I felt like I wasn’t really connected to my roots and that I felt more â€Å"Americanized†. Just because I look ‘Mexican’ and speak Spanish and eat Mexican foods doesn’t make me like the people who live in Mexico. Seeing their infrastructure and the way they value family and how they spend their free time made the realize that its good to be different, because that way you can enlighten all kinds of people with your personal experiences.

Major Issues and The Place of Traditional Religion Essay

Major Issues and The Place of Traditional Religion - Essay Example n has mostly been undertaken by foreign observers who unfortunately have been less analytical due to their lack of knowledge of African languages, which are normally rich in cultural expression and linguistic (Olupona, 1991). Olupona examines the reasons that made the study of African religion study to suffer serious setbacks in the initial efforts by scholars to get a unit of study from it. According to Olupona, the impact of Christianity and particularly its emphasis of particularity did much damage to the overall study of the African traditional religion and the rightful recognition of its experience. This is essentially what has contributed to the many difficulties bedeviling the study of Africa religion to date, among them being the problem of sources and what could be referred as the goal of Africa religion study. Other problems that have been besetting this study that Olupona has pointed is the size of the Africa as a continent and derogatory appellations like â€Å"dark continent, not to mention the multitude and complexity of each and every quality of Africa’s various language, climate, culture and such like. Another issue that Olupona has examined in depth in this chapter is the problem of the consequences of the European settlements that have wiped out whole cultures and obliterated lots and lots of racial memories, consequently establishing what has been referred to as â€Å"a bit of whiteness† syndrome in the African continent. He also explores the unrepairable blow that has been caused to the Africa traditional religion by the western education, mercantile or civil services crisscrossing the Africa continent (Olupona, 1991). In this chapter Olupona look at the effect of traditional religion to today’s South Africa. According to him it is difficult to talk of a single world view in Africa because of the cultural heterogeneity that predominate Africa. He proceeds to interrogate the issue of whether worldview can be differentiated in the late 20th

How to Prepare for Final Examinations Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

How to Prepare for Final Examinations - Article Example Before, the beginning of examinations, the student should set certain goals which he likes to achieve or reflect in the examination results. Subsequently, all the efforts should be made to attain those predetermined goals. The goals should be realistic ones. In other words, the student should never set goals which are beyond his capabilities. There are many students who struggle to get even the desired grades in the final examinations because of the unrealistic goals just before the examinations. It is difficult for an average student to achieve first grade even if he tries extremely hard during the final examinations. If he wants to achieve first grade he should begin his preparations at the beginning of the course itself. When it comes to preparations of final examinations, different students opt for different ways. However, there are some general principles which are followed by the majority of the students while they prepare for their final examinations. First, it is better to start examination preparations as early as possible in order to avoid problems later. Early preparations help the student to avoid stress and anxiety with respect to final examinations. Majority of the students fail to perform well in final examinations because of their anxiety and stress related to the outcomes of the examination. Self-assessment of the level of knowledge in each subject is the second step in the preparations of final examinations. Before the beginning of the preparations, the student should decide which subjects need more attention and which subjects need less attention since he is the only one who knows his mastery in different subjects very well.  Ã‚  

Strategic Analysis of ZARA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Strategic Analysis of ZARA - Essay Example Per se, Zara has many risks imposed by such factors as rival promotional competence, the ability of consumers to dictate pricing among retailers, and even responsiveness (or lack thereof) of suppliers that are critical to meeting the two week lead time from design to delivery. The report identified that Zara requires acknowledgement of market forces that can potentially impede brand sustainment and growth in sales. These forces include ongoing negative publicity for allegations of unethical business practices, the competence of competitive rivalry especially related to marketing philosophies of rivals, and even macro-economic issues related to foreign currency exchanges. All of these factors influence Zara’s strategic position and direction. Findings indicate recommendations that include more proactive efforts at promoting corporate social responsibility, changing trading currency from the Euro to the American dollar, conducting more market research studies on consumer target groups, and working to build an internal culture focused on ethical behaviour. These recommendations will assist Zara in sustaining a positive brand reputation and building equity that can translate into future revenue gains through diversification efforts. CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction......................................................................................... 2.0 Competitive forces and industry audit............................................. 2.1 PESTLE Analysis..................................................................... 3.0 An internal strategic audit.................................................................. 4.0 Public relations crises at Zara........................................................... 5.0 Recommendations for improving future business position........... 6.0 Conclusion........................................................................................... References 1.0 Introduction Zara is a leader in providing what is referred to a s fast fashion products in the retail environment. Fast fashion is defined as the ability of the company to rapidly replenish inventories in the sales environment in a lead time of two weeks or less. Accomplishment of this strategy entails aligning all elements of the value chain that are necessary to achieve competitive advantage. This report highlights Zara’s industry environment, the competitive pressures and threats of the firm’s operating environment, and proposes recommendations for future business improvement. 2.0 Competitive forces and industry audit The retail industry in most developed countries is very saturated, meaning that international markets are inundated with a variety of retail competitors. Zara is currently most impacted by competitive forces from H&M, The Gap and Benetton, which are competitors that offer similar fashion products at reasonably similar pricing structures. Because of this saturation and presence of like rivals, Zara must be ever-awar e of the changing market forces that have the ability to improve business position or severely hinder its performance and profitability. Porter (2011) describes five forces that impact whether or not a business can adapt or find positive market position in its operating markets. These include threat of substitutes, buyer power, supplier power, rivalry between competitors, and the risk of new market entrants by competing retail organisations. All of these forces influence business strategy development as well as responsiveness of Zara in attempting to outperform competitors. Zara faces very little in its sales markets in relation to substitutes. Substitutes are defined as replacement products that can serve as surrogate products for consumers. In the fashion industry, except for like products

Evaluation of Demand Elasticity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Evaluation of Demand Elasticity - Research Paper Example The value of elasticity (e) for a product lies in the range of 0 to 1. If the elasticity for a product is 0 (perfectly inelastic), then the sellers can easily manipulate changes in the price of the product. However, if the demand elasticity for the product is 1 (perfectly elastic), then the sellers must be very careful while changing the price of the product (as the demand is highly sensitive). This research paper will concentrate on the business price elasticity analysis of a Hamilton Beach 4 Speed Blender. The learnt from the paper will help the researcher to analyze the most optimal business strategy for the product (Arnold 167). Section 1: Relative Price Comparison This part of the paper will explain the relative price comparison table for the concerned product, Hamilton Beach 4 Speed Blender. This is a table that would compare the prices of the product with its close substitutes. Relative Price Comparison Table (Source: Author’s Creation) The above table explains the rela tive price comparison table for the Hamilton Beach 4 Speed Blender. The three selected locations are the different cities of Los Angeles. These are West Hollywood, Culver City and Santa Monica. The table would compare the prices of Hamilton Beach 4 Speed Blender in these three locations (prices of the same group products in three different markets in nearby geographic locations) (â€Å"Hamilton Beach 54615 Wavestation Express Dispensing Blender with 48-Ounce Jar, Black†). The two close substitute product of the Hamilton Beach 4 Speed Blender are the Hamilton Beach Big Mouth Juicer and the Hamilton Beach Stainless Steel Peeler of Fruit and Vegetable. It should be considered that there is no perfect substitute for the mixer grinder. This is the reason for which peeler and juicer are the closed substitutes of the product. The table would also compare the prices of the close substitutes of the Hamilton Beach 2 Speed Blender in the same markets (â€Å"Hamilton Beach Big Mouth Jui ce Extractor†). Before the table is analyzed, one has to understand the meaning of a substitute product. Products are substitutes of each other if the features inbuilt in the product satisfy the same type of demand (hence, utility) for consumers. Cross price relation of substitute products is positive. For example, Coke and Pepsi are substitutes of each other and thus, the rise in the price of Coke would decrease its quantity demanded (law of demand) and increase the price for Pepsi (â€Å"Hamilton Beach Stainless Steel Fruit & Vegetable Peeler – 03066†). Price of Coke Quantity Demanded for Pepsi (Source: Author’s Creation) The relative price comparison table in the above graph reflects the price differentials among the close substitutes in the three nearby markets (Hamilton Beach 4 Speed Blender, Hamilton Beach Big Mouth Juicer and Hamilton Beach Stainless Steel Peeler of Fruit and Vegetable) and almost no price differences in the same group of product (H amilton Beach 4 Speed Blender) in the chosen locations in these three markets (Culver City, West Hollywood and Santa Monica). Before the in-depth analysis, the cause for this situation can be explained by theory of simple economics. The close substitutes are actually products with different characteristic

Focus on Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Focus on Society - Essay Example The point that needs to be taken into consideration is that no other art form is so fervently associated with economics and business as films. So, by necessity a film has to retain a delicate balance between expressing social realities so that the viewers may relate to it, while at the same time being artistically creative and involving, thereby addressing the commercial constraints and expectations (Curran, 1998). Cinema is an art form with a very large scope, canvass and budget. Yet, it is also a medium endowed with a greater responsibility towards society as compared to other art forms. So films do get influenced by the social context in which they are created, though the vivid blend of imagination, reality, glamour, intensity and conflict presented in them never fails to directly or indirectly influence the viewers in varying proportions (Hayward, 2000). It will be really relevant to talk about the 1994 comedy-drama Forrest Gump. The film, revolving around the life of a simpleton from Alabama, Forrest Gump, in a way presents the important social, popular and historical issues and events of the 20th century America. Yet, the film did not portray the American history with the simplicity of a school textbook.

Non verbal communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Non verbal communication - Essay Example Therefore, non-verbal communication will always be a part of our lives whether intentionally or unconsciously. Non-verbal communication helps us unfold what a person has not told us. This is referred to as judging of internal states. Through non-verbal communication, an individual can express his or her feelings, emotions, attitudes and perceptions (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2009, 244). For instance, an individual may not admit that they are shy, but through their nonverbal communication, another person will be able to realize their shyness. It is thus essential in helping us understand people much better. Through non-verbal communication, an individual is also able to know when another is lying or when the information being told through speech is false. Therefore, non-verbal communication helps us understand the inner part of a person. This is also because; unlike verbal speech, which can be falsified, non-verbal communication cannot be faked. Thus, it expresses the true feelings and emotions of a person. Non-verbal information is also beneficial in creating of impressions (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2009, 245). This application is mainly applied during interviews where by an interviewer can judge the interviewee from the impression created even without being told. For instance, a fidgeting interviewee will be judged as timid and shy even if that is not the case. Non-verbal communication is also crucial in helping us to manage our interaction with different cultures. This mainly helps to eradicate misunderstandings among individuals of different cultures since different cultures translate non-verbal signals differently (Wolters, 2010, 1). In addition, with non-verbal translation, individuals from different cultures are able to communicate with each other by use of non-verbal signals. Elements of Public Speaking Public Speaking refers to the addressing of a multitude of persons on a certain topic. Different individuals use different skills to ensure that the ir message is well understood by their audience. However, the major elements of public speaking identified by scholars include: Preparation An individual should be fully prepared before giving a public speech. This includes ensuring that information to be presented is well organization and put in a basic form that will be easily understood by the audience. Preparation also assists the speaker to ensure that the information presented is relevant and useful (Lenny Laskowski, 1997, 1). Staying relaxed Public speaking can only flow smoothly when the speaker is relaxed and composed. Contrary, the speaker is likely to mix up the ideas without giving the required explanation. Scholars also assert that the audience is likely to believe in the speech of a confident person than of person who does not believe in themselves (Evans, 2012, 1). Use of a good sense of humour, correct grammar and proper pronunciation A public speech that is full of grammatical mistakes will usually be rated as poor and of low quality. Good sense of humour in a public speech also ensures that the audience stays alert and is not bored (Gupit, 2011, 13). Audience awareness An important element of public speech is being aware of the audience being addressed. This is because; different types of language will be used for different levels of audience. For instance, an audience composed of young people may entertain some jokes that an aged audience will not entertain (Evans, 2012, 1). Audibility and Clarity It is

Legalization of Marijuana Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Legalization of Marijuana - Research Paper Example The economic feasibility of decriminalizing marijuana has become a much-discussed subject in recent years. The federal government presently spends a lot of capital on law enforcement to combat distributors and producers of drugs. By legalizing drugs this could eradicate much of the profit, bloodshed and corruption of that trade. If legalizing drugs is to have a positive effect on the crime rate, drugs must be made both inexpensive and available. Studies have repetitively suggested that prohibiting marijuana in the U.S. has not shown to be efficient or effective. According to the Drug Policy Alliance, â€Å"U.S. federal, state and local governments have spent hundreds of billions of dollars trying to make America ‘drug-free.’ Yet heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine and other illicit drugs are cheaper, purer and easier to get than ever before. (â€Å"England,† 2006) According to a report in The Economist (Case for Legalization, 2001), concerns that a growing drug-usin g and dependent population would emerge if marijuana was made more available are false. Although the magazine acknowledges that the price of the drug is artificially high, it attributes this to the difficulties involved in circumventing the law. The authors of this report indicate that it is only because of the high cost and the difficulty to obtain it that more individuals have not experimented with it. Instead, they become addicted, either physically or psychologically, to other, often more harmful yet legal substances such as prescription medications or alcohol. To support their argument in favor of legalization even should the numbers of suspected users rise, the Economist article (Case for Legalization, 2001) draws on the theories of John Stuart Mill. Mill’s ideas were founded on the concept that adult citizens should have the right to make their own choices regarding whether or not to participate in activity as long as it does no harm to others. This is a founding theor y that has been mostly ignored in decisions made regarding alcohol and tobacco, both of which have proven to directly cause significant harm to innocent others, but has not been ignored regarding Class C substances such as marijuana. However, the arguments that more people would become regular users of the substance are unfounded. In addition to the fallacies of the anti-legalization side regarding increased use, the damage perpetrated on those involved with marijuana far outweighs the benefits achieved by current legislation and yet continues to exist. Poor countries where the drug is produced are quickly being overrun by criminals and thugs, people who make breaking the law on numerous levels. Because production and exportation is considered a criminal activity, the actual criminals are finding success rather than defeat. Individuals within the rich countries who buy the drugs are often otherwise productive members of society. Smoking marijuana, for medical or other reasons, is of ten their only ‘crime’ yet they face a no tolerance policy that places them in prison, destroys their chances to continue being the productive people they were before and irreparably harms them in many other ways. Under legalization, governments would be able to standardize the quality, regulate the ages

Jobs Philosophies, Styles and Achievement Essay - 9

Jobs Philosophies, Styles and Achievement - Essay Example   Perhaps one of the remarkable well-known managers in today’s modern time was the late Steve Job from Apple Incorporated. We know him as a person who did not consider making money as the most important factor in his success, but the actual process of creation (Biddle, 2011). As a person who believed the potential power of innovation, Job eventually achieved a competitive advantage as he tried to produce highly differentiated product offerings. He became one of the market leaders in his industry as he developed product offerings that are something new and successfully created need for them. Job, therefore, was a process-oriented man, accepting ideas that he truly understood that became the reason for his potential success in his field of expertise (Biddle, 2011). He therefore just went for innovation without understanding the associated process in it. In fact, the reason why most of his created products obtained remarkable market share and customer acceptance was due to his ability to know a lot about the creation of his product offerings and understanding customers’ behaviors towards innovation. Including in this process of creation was Job’s ability to provide strong leadership. A job was a remarkable leader in his time, as he successfully imparted the vision to his followers. According to Biddle (2011), organizational and cultural change leads to successful management. Kotter (1998) remarkably points out that leadership is about coping with change, and this includes setting direction, aligning and motivating people. In other words, combining these two ideas leads us to identify leadership, as integrated into the management process requires the achievement of actual change. Almost in all areas, Apple needs to embrace change and this is one remarkable point why Job needs to specify and allows the whole process of creation to be fully grasped by his team. After understanding the whole process of creation, it would be now easy to embrace a ny remarkable change after the human resource has fully mastered the actual process of creation involved. For this reason, Job was successfully able to promote an organizational culture that would not be susceptible to react with various changes. In doing so, Job was able to run the vision and acquire elemental results leading to the popularity of Apple in its industry. It is part of Job’s achievement to set a remarkable culture for his organization. This culture has a potential impact on its future growth (Schein, 2010, p.336). Today, we see Apple as one of the giants in its industry because of what Job initiated from the start, cultivating its culture for easy adaptation of some future changes. Contrary to what others might believe, as he embraced the process of creation and objective understanding of things, Steve Job was not an Objectivist.

Tort law assignment Essay Example for Free

Tort law assignment Essay Advise John as to claims that he may have against Brian in tort. For John to make a claim against Brian in tort the following three elements must be proved: whether Brian owes a duty of care to John, if that duty was breached and if the breach caused the damage. Liability for negligent misstatements causing pure economic loss have the usual requirements of duty, breach and damages but special treatment is necessary as people are less careful in what they say than in what they do on social and informal occasions. Lord Pierce in Hedley Byrne stated: â€Å"word are more volatile than deeds, they travel faster and are used without being expended† To establish the difference between ‘pure economic loss’ and economic loss which is consequent upon physical damage to property. This was defined in Spartan Steel v Martin 1973, where the loss was foreseeable but Lord Denning held a line must be drawn, and that the loss was better borne by the insures than by the defendants alone. The Misrepresentation Act 1967 states where there is a fiduciary relationship (a person to whom property or power is entrusted for the benefit of another) for example between a solicitor and a client liability arises here in contract and tort. There is no need to prove a duty of care exists. Brian who is a part qualified accountant advised John about the shares, but there was no contract involved so he wouldn’t be liable under contract and tort. Brian advised John to buy shares from Brighwater Ltd. so it was something Brian said to John and not did. Therefore, the area of deceit must be looked at. Deceit occurs when a person knowing or recklessly makes a false representation to the claimant. The leading case Derry v Peek 1888 outlined that no duty would be required in relationship to negligent misrepresentations. Therefore this case can’t be applied to Brian and John’s scenarios as action was only available for fraudulent misrepresentations. This was then overruled in Hedley Byrne v Heller 1964 where the possibility of claims for negligent misstatement was opened up. That a duty of care would arise in appropriate circumstances to give careful advice and that failure to do so would result in liability for economic loss. The House of Lords laid down strict guidelines for when this could apply: If there was a special relationship between the two partes, based on the defendants skill and judgement and the reliance placed upon it. The defendant (advisor) must posses a special skill relating to the type of advice given and must have realise that the claimant (advisee) would rely on that skill. The claimant receiving the advice must have acted in reliance on it as longs as it was reasonable to rely on the advice. To establish whether there was a special relationship between Brian and John the meaning of a special relationship must be looked at. In Chaudry V Prabhaker 1988 it showed that a purely social relationship can give rise to a duty of care, when carefully considered advice was being sought from a party with some expertise. Brian share a social relationship with John as they are friends, but this gave rise to Brian’s duty of care. As carefully considered advice was being sought from John who knew Brian would have some expertise about shares as a he was a part qualified accountant. It was in Yianni v Edwin Evans 1982 which established the existence of a special and that even if there is no contractual relationship between a building society surveyor and the house purchaser that a special relationship could exist. Brian and John did not sign a contract but a special relationship can still be established. Therefore under Hedley Byrne the first guidline has been established to prove there is a duty of care as there is a special relationship between Brian and John, It must be proved that Brian the advisor possessed a special skill relating to the type of advice he gave and must have realise that the John (advisee) would rely on that skill. In Mutual Life and Citizens Assurance v Evatt 1971 it was held that there would only be a duty of care if the party giving advice held himself out as being in the business of giving the advice in question. So, Brian owes John a duty of care as he is a part qualified accountant and he gave out advice about buying Brightwater shares, which is advice relating to the business of accountancy. The second guideline under Hedley Byrne has been established and Brian owes John a duty of care as he possessed a special skill relating to the advice he gave. John must prove that in receiving the advice he acted in reliance on it. As in Smith v Eric S Bush where it was held that if there is foreseeable reliance on advice that has been given that a duty of care is owed. John relied on Brian’s advice and considered it reasonable, as he invested all his shares in the company which shows there was foreseeable reliance. Therefore Brian owes John a duty of care and under Hedley Byrne the last guidline has been proven. However, there has been limitations on these three guidelines as in Caparo V Dickman 1990. The main principle being that the reliance is reasonably foreseeable to the defendant. For a duty of care to exist under Caparo the following must be established: whether the consequences were reasonably foreseeable, if there is a relationship of proximity between the parties, and if it’s fair just and reasonable to impose a duty. For the first part of establishing a duty of care it must be proved that the defendant’s act were reasonably foreseeable. In Kent v Griffiths 2000 it was reasonably foreseeable that the claimant would suffer harm from the failure of the ambulance to arrive. In Bourhill v Young 1943 the motorcyclist did not owe a duty of care as it was not reasonably foreseen that the claimant would be affected by his negligent driving. Brian owes John a duty of care as it is reasonably foreseeable that there is risk involved if Brian advises John to buy shares in Brightwater Ltd. Is there a relationship of proximity between the two parties? This can be through a legal relationship or physical closeness. In Osman v Ferguson 1993 there was a sufficient close relationship between the parties compared to Hill v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire 1998 where the relationship between the police and the victim was not sufficiently close. There is a relationship between Brian and John of friends, so there is a sufficiently close relationship between them. Is it fair just and reasonable to impose a duty of care? It was not held fair just and reasonable to impose a duty of care on the police as there was not a relationship of proximity in Hill v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire. In Capital v Hampshire County Council 1997 it was held fair to impose a duty on the fire brigade. So, it would be fair just and reasonable to impose a duty of care on Brian as he is a part qualified accountant who advised John to buy the shares, so he owed John a duty of care to give careful advice. Therefore Brian satisfies all three stages of the Caparo test and it would be held by the courts that he did owe John a duty of care. Guidance on the factors to be taken into account in establishing a duty of care have been provided by the Court of Appeal in James McNaughten v Hicks Anderson 1991: The purpose for which the statement was made The purpose for which it was communicated The relationship between the person giving the advice, the person receiving the advice and any relevant third parties The size of any class that the person receiving the advice belonged to. The degree of knowledge of the person giving the advice. Reliance by the advisee. In taking these factors into account, Brian’s purpose for which he made the statement ‘trust me, buy their shares you will be on a winner’ was so that John would buy the shares. The purpose Brian communicated the advice for was for John to take action and invest in Brightwater Ltd. The relationship between Brian and John is that they are friends and John was relying on Brian to give him guidance about buying shares. To consider Brian’s knowledge at the time he made the statement was that he had professional knowledge of an accountant, because even if he was only part qualified he would be judged against the standard of a fully qualified accountant. John relied on Brian’s advice, as he was his friend and because he thought Brian was giving him reasonable advice, which he took and then invested shares in the company. Under James Macnaughton all 6 factors have been proven and Brian would owe John a duty of care. Now that it has been proved that Brian owes John a duty of care it must be proved that he breached the duty. For a breach of duty to be proved the following must be taken into consideration: the degree of risk, standard of care and proof of breach. The degree of risk must be high as in Hayley v London Electricity Board where there was a known risk. Brian advised John to buy the shares and there was a high risk that John could lose his money as buying shares is a risky business. So it has been proved that there was a high risk John would lose his money. The standard of care was established in Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks 1856 which introduced a reasonable man test that if the defendant falls against the standard of care a reasonable man would take there is a breach of duty. Brian fell against the standard of care a reasonable man would take as he advised John to buy the shares to be ‘on a winner’ which Brian could not have been certain about so he breached his duty. Specific rule apply to specific people so considerations will be made for different types of people. Mullin v Richards 1998 showed children can be held for negligence. Nettleship v Weston 1971 showed learners would be judged against the standard of a reasonable competent driver. The standard of care expected was that of a similarly qualified expert as in Bolam v Friern Hospital 1957. Therefore even though Brian was only a part qualified accountant, he still fell below the standard expected of a similarly qualified accountant, as he advise John wrongly about the shares and has breached his duty. Proof of breach ‘res ipsa loquitar’ fact speak for themselves rule. The claimant must show that the defendant was in control of the situation that caused the claimants injury and that it was cause by negligence. John can prove that Brian was the reason he lost all of his investment, because if it wasn’t for Brian advising him to buy the shares he wouldn’t have lost the money. Now that breach of duty has been proven, it must be proven that the damages suffered were caused by the breach of duty. This can be proved using the ‘but for’ rule as in Barnett v Chelsea and Kensington1969 where the claimant wouldn’t have suffered the damages ‘but for’ the defendants breach of duty. ‘John wouldn’t have lost out on his investment ‘but for’ Brian advising him to buy the shares. If the ‘but for’ is proven but the damages are too remote from the defendant breach of duty then there is no liability as in Wagon Mound 1961. However John lost all his investment as the company went into liquidation so the damage is not remote. Overall, it has been proven that Brian owes John a duty of care, that he breached the duty and that the damages suffered were caused by his breach so he would be liable! References: Turner C. and Hodge S. (2007) Unlocking Torts. Oxon: Book point Ltd Hogdson J. and Lewthwaite J. (2004) Tort Law. New York:Oxford Press Harpwood V. (2009) Modern Tort Law. Oxon: Routledge-Cavendish McBride N. and Bagshaw R. (2008) Tort Law. Essex: Pearson Education. Cooke J. (2009) Law of Tort. Essex: Pearson Education.

Findings Chapter on Resilience Research

Findings Chapter on Resilience Research Chapter four: Stage 1 qualitative data collection, analysis and empirical findings Introduction This chapter discusses the first stage of empirical study, including its data collection, data analysis and findings. This chapter discusses how different data collection and analysis methods were used during the research to find answers to the research questions. In particular, this chapter describes the use of semi-structured interview method to collect data for the research (next section). Sampling techniques used for the study are discussed, followed by the development of interview questions and process of conducting interviews. Then the qualitative data analysis approach will be discussed. Empirical findings of the stage one are presented and explained in detail. This chapter will also highlight the contribution to the concept of resilience. This would be achieved through incorporating empirical findings to refine the Proactive Performance Measurement for SC resilience (2PM-SCR) framework earlier developed from the literature. Four matrices have been developed to define the relations between the three main constructs of supply chain resilience: risks, KPIs, and capabilities. Sampling technique The number and content of interviews was based non-probability sampling techniques; Purposive (Judgmental), and Snowball sampling. The initial participant sample is based on the participants interest to participate in the research. In purposive sampling, participants were selected based on pre-selected criteria which will best enable the researcher to answer the research questions. Thus, purposive sampling ensures adequate representation of important themes. Then each interviewee was asked towards the end of the interview whom they may think would be suitable for a similar interview and who may be knowledgeable about the phenomena (snowball sampling). Thus, recommendations will be taken from people who know people who know that they are suitable for similar lines on questioning around the research framework. Purposive sampling represents a group of different non-probability sampling techniques. Also known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling, purposive sampling relies on the judgement of the researcher when it comes to selecting the units (e.g., people, cases/organisations, events, pieces of data) that are to be studied. Usually, the sample being investigated is quite small, especially when compared with probability sampling techniques. In purposive sampling technique, the suitable interview participants were identified through industry contacts after they have been assessed based on the following criteria as stated earlier: The sample should be from the FMCG industry covering any of the FMCG categories such as (Food, Home, Personal Care, Agriculture, Retail, Medicinal Herbs, Bakery, Beverages, Dairy products, fast food) The company must be at least medium-sized (From 10 to 249 Employee) or Large-sized (Greeter than 249 Employees). SC manager interviewed must have a level of experience of more than 5 years. Company Type / Function ( Manufacture Distributor Supplier Retailer) To cover at least 3 categories of FMCG The sample should provide access to its key information (primary data) In application to my research, two informal meetings were conducted with experts from the SC Council Middle East Chapter based in Egypt. I was recommended to look for 35 companies from the FMCG that have appropriate SC activities. So I have emailed all the 35 companies and I have got 25 responses out of the 35 that were willing to participate in my research. From those 25 companies, 5 companies were neglected because either their SC activities are very limited or the people involved in the SC activities have less than 5 years of experience which will subsequently give a lack of understanding of the issue of y research. After the 25 companies were chosen, snowball sampling was obtained by asking participants to suggest someone else who was appropriate for the study. For example, Americana Olives SC manager was asked to suggest other companies which could contribute to the research, he recommended Americana Cakes SC manager. Nevertheless, based on the researcher knowledge and judgement , some companies were found to be not suitable for this research. In order to have a good sample to the research, 30 companies have been chosen that apply to the criterias that previously stated. The companies were selected by taking into consideration their position in the FMCG SC (i.e. supplier/manufacturer/distributor/retailer). It is essential to have companies that are continuously managing their SC in order to get a deeper understanding of the risks and different problems that face the entire network. The companies shall continuously manage their SC and be medium sized or big companies. Its important to get interviews with people with the right competence within the company in order to get the most insight from the interviews. Each expert who participated in the interview had direct involvement of the respective SCM position in MER and they all had direct work experience in supply chain for more than 10 years which indicates the high level of skills, in the field of supply chain. The choice to use a smaller number of cases were deliberate as it makes it possible to have  a more in depth study of the cases and is in this case more suitable. All interviewees were contacted over the phone by explaining the research topic, research questions, objectives and purpose of the interviews, in order to obtain their consent to participate in the interviews. All interviews were conducted on-site and were audio recorded with the consent of participants for word-for-word transcribing purposes. One interview was on average of 1.5 to 2 hours in duration. More information about the interviews will be discussed in the next section. The data collection will help in generating theory by jointly collecting data and analysing them to be the building block of the iterative conceptual model. Saunders et al. (2009) suggest to continuingly collect qualitative data such as by conducting additional interviews, until data saturation is reached; in other words until the additional data collected provides few, if any, new insights. In this study, interviews were conducted with 30 companies in the FMCG industry. Moreover, to cover different sectors in the industry; such as diary, food, retailers, and healthcare. Interviewing the 30 companies helped to gain adequate information to be able to generalize the findings. Apparently, there was an intention to involve a larger sample size since different participants might have different opinions and perceptions. But as the same time, if a large sample is used, data becomes repetitive (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This is called the saturation point when the collection of new data wont add further insight to the research performed. The idea of data saturation in studies is important; nevertheless, it does not provide a practical guide for when this point has been touched (Guest et al., 2006). Moreover, authors argued that analysing interview results can be one of the methods that help to figure out the point at which data saturation has been attained (Bernard, 2012). Thus, owing to the exploratory nature of this research, saturation was not less below the 30 companies interviewed since new risks, capabilities, and KPIs were explored based on the companys place in the network (i.e. supplier/manufacturer/distributor/retailer) and the category of FMCG underneath the company falls. Empirical data collection After setting the criteria for the companies that could be part of this research, it has been assured that each SC manager who participated had direct involvement of the respective SCM position in MER and they all had direct work experience in SC for at least five years which indicated the high level of skills in the field of SC as previously stated in the previous section. The 30 companies have experience in SC shown in Table 4.1 representing manufacturing, supplier, distribution and retail sectors in MER. The category, country, company, size, level of experience, and the type of the company are shown in the columns of Table 4.1. The number of employees column provides an indication of the company size. In other words, the sample consists of mid and large scale companies with various business natures. Moreover, an interview template (see Appendix 1) was developed and used for this study and there was always freedom for participants to express their ideas with respect to the context being discussed. For further details about the background of the companies please check Appendix 1. Table 4.1: Summary of the companies involved in the empirical phase Category Country Interview with Food 8 Multinational 15 Supply chain top and middle management 5 Home and Personal Care 1 Local 15 Supply chain top management 25 Food and Personal Care 1 Company Size Type Agriculture 1 Medium-sized 2 Manufacture Distributor 13 Retail 4 Large-sized 28 Manufacture Distributor Supplier 10 Agriculture and Medicinal Herbs 1 Experience Manufacturer 1 Food and Bakery 1 More than 15 years 10 Retailer 4 Beverage 2 More than 10 years 9 Manufacture Retail 2 Dairy 5 More than 20 years 3 Medicinal Herbs 1 More than 5 years 6 Fast Food 2 More than 25 years 2 Dairy and Cheese 3 Conducting interviews The interviews were conducted in person to over a period of 15 months from May 2015 to August 2016. Interview times ranged from 90 minutes to 120 minutes, depending on the interviewees schedule and availability. Ethical issues have been considered as stated earlier through gaining informed consent and making confirming that the interview data will be treated as confidential to be used only for research purpose. Thus, a permission of audio recording the interviews was asked for in the beginning of the interview. The audio files were highly useful to help transcribe all interviews word-for-word in order to reduce the biasness and increase the reliability and validity of the research by obtaining confirmation for each transcription from respective interview participant. Moreover, this was because taking notes during the interviews might cause the researcher to lose focus of important data. Additionally, notes taking consume time due to interview time limitation. The researcher started the interview by introducing himself and giving an overall brief about the research conducted. Then, respondents were free to express themselves on any question asked. The interview template consists of nine sections (See Appendix 1). It starts with general questions asking about the company and the interviewee, then general specific SC questions are asked to know an overview of how the network looks like. Then, the researcher gets more specific sections to ask about the four main SC functions; purchasing, warehousing, planning, and logistics. The last three sections are concerned about the risks that the company faces, and a section asking about the risks facing the entire SC, and a final section questions regarding the SC resilience awareness, SC capabilities and resilience KPIs. After each question, the researcher confirmed with the interviewees about the meaning of their answers to make sure that the answers are well understood. Moreover, asking open-ended questions gave the interviewees to incorporate more data, themes, and attitudes towards some issues that may be useful while analysing the data collected. However, the intention of the interview questions was not just to confirm the important factors in the literature but rather to discover other new factors to be able to refine the 2PM-SCR conceptual framework pre-developed earlier. Data analysis process Qualitative data analysis consists of identifying, coding, and categorizing patterns or themes found in the data. The analytical skills of the researcher highly affects the clarity and relevance of the findings. Consequently, these skills would be either a great strength or weakness of any qualitative based research. However, it is crucial that the researcher reports and documents the analytic processes and procedures fully and truthfully so that others can evaluate the credibility of the researcher and their findings (Braun and Clarke, 2006). The Qualitative analysis process as proposed by Creswell (2009) starts by data collection and management, then the raw data are organized to be coded and described, after that comes the stage of conceptualization, classifying, categorizing, and identifying themes to be connected and interrelated together. At last, it is the interpretation process by creating explanatory accounts that provide meanings to the identified themes. The data collected through semi-structured interviews were qualitative data of participants opinions and ideas on the subject being discussed. Each interview audio file was transcribed word- for-word in order to avoid missing any element from the responses given by the interview participant. The analysis of the data started with some prior knowledge, initial analytic interests and thoughts. The transcription process was also an excellent way for the researcher to begin the process of familiarizing themselves with the interview data and creating meanings from them. According to Bird (2005), transcription is a key phase of data analysis within an interpretative qualitative methodology. The majority of the recorded interviews were first translated from Arabic into English and then transcribed. Therefore, during this stage, I had the opportunity to immerse myself in the collected data to the extent that he was familiar with the depth and breadth of the content. Afterwards, transcripts were carefully edit ed to clean them from irrelevant phrases which were not relevant to the interview topic. A combination of two qualitative data analysis methods have been used (see Figure 4.1) to analyse the cleaned transcripts: thematic analysis (Tharenou et al., 2007; King and Horrocks, 2010) and comparative analysis (Miles and Huberman, 1994; Dawson, 2002). The thematic analysis has been used to allow new SC resilience themes (i.e. capabilities, KPIs and risks in this case) to emerge by coding openly and to confirm existing themes from the transcripts and documents, whilst comparative analysis method has been used to examine the set of themes across the 30 companies to detect the strength of evidence from empirical data (Dawson, 2002; Tharenou et al., 2007). The coding step comprised 3 key activities: identifying and confirming the themes of what, how, why and with-what for the risks, capabilities, and KPIs based on the frequency of occurrence of empirical data support from the 30 companies. Then the categories were derived and the findings were associated to relevant categories/topic s in order to increase the understanding of integrative work on SC resilience. Finally, the initial conceptual framework was refined, by integrating and summarizing the empirical findings. Since there was a high volume of interview data, NVIVO software was used in this research because it has various advantages, such as reducing the manual tasks and giving more time to discover tendencies, recognize themes and derive conclusions (Wong, 2008). Figure 4.1: Qualitative Data Analysis steps Integrating thematic and comparative analysis methods Thematic analysis and comparative analysis were used in order to analyse qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews with SC managers from the 30 FMCG Companies. The themes were identified through coded data and categorized using thematic analysis. Therefore, thematic analysis should be seen as a foundational approach for qualitative analysis and can be defined as an approach that is used for identifying, extracting, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within the collected textual materials and then organizing and describing those themes in detail (Braun Clarke 2006). The step of generating the initial codes started when the researcher had become familiar with the data through the generation of an initial list of ideas about what was in the data and what was interesting about them. The QSR NVIVO was used to perform the second step of the data analysis. This was done by grouping and naming selections from the text within each data item. As suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006), the researcher coded as many potential themes and patterns as possible as it is never possible to know what might become of interest later on. The result of this step was a long list of the different codes that the researcher had identified across the data. In searching for themes, there was a need to re-focus the analysis at a broader level than had been undertaken with the codes. This required sorting and organizing all the different relevant codes into potential themes. This step ended when a collection of possible themes and sub-themes was generated, together with related codes. A thematic map was then refined to consider whether the collated codes for each theme appeared to form a coherent pattern, whether the individual theme was valid in relation to the entire data set, and if the thematic map accurately reflected the meanings evident in the data set as a whole (Braun Clarke 2006). After the step of searching for themes, the researcher came up with a set of themes. Throughout the analysis, the researcher identified a number of themes following the three phases underlined by King and Horrocks (2010): [1] Descriptive coding (first-order codes): the researcher classifies the transcribed data from the interviews that allocates descriptive codes and help in answering the research questions. [2] Interpretative coding (second-order themes): The descriptive codes allocated which seems to carry common meaning are grouped allocated are grouped and an interpretive code is created. [3] Defining overarching themes (aggregate dimensions): Overarching themes that can describe the main concepts in the analysis are identified. In application to this research, the second-order themes were identified using first-order codes, and they were categorized as aggregated dimensions to reveal the main categories of risks, capabilities, and KPIs. The comparative analysis is closely connected to thematic analysis (Dawson, 2002) and used with thematic analysis in this research. Using this method, data from different companies is compared and contrasted and the analysis continues until finding got saturated from the data collected. Comparative and thematic analyses are frequently used together within the same research data analysis, through moving backwards and forwards between transcripts, memos, notes and the literature in order to confirm the themes emerged through thematic analysis (Dawson, 2002; King and Horrocks, 2010). Comparative analysis was used to confirm the second-order themes discovered in the empirical findings for the three main SC constructs (risks, capabilities, and KPIs) to identify the similarities, agreements, and dis-agreements across the 30 companies interviewed. Consistent with the scaling structure adopted by Rihoux and Ragin (2008) shown in Table 4.2, the second-order themes are counted based on how frequently is referred to in the empirical data. Triple ticks (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡) represent strong evidence, double ticks (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡) represent average evidence, single tick (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡) represents weak evidence, and no ticks represent no evidence supported. Table 4.2: Scales used for comparative analysis Scale Symbol Frequency ofoccurrence No evidence [blank] Zero Weak evidence à ¢Ã…“â€Å" Between 1 and 4 (1à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤xà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤4) Average evidence à ¢Ã…“â€Å"à ¢Ã…“â€Å" Between 5 and 8 (5à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤xà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤8) Strong evidence à ¢Ã…“â€Å"à ¢Ã…“â€Å"à ¢Ã…“â€Å" More than or equal 9 (9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤x) Source: Rihoux and Ragin (2008) Empirical findings that have been presented in narrative discussion above, will be analysed with existing studies. The purpose of this analysis is to examine whether evidences confirm, unconfirmed or existing studies. comparative analysis used  particularly to confirm the discovery of knowledge determinates and knowledge flows  (in the knowledge network model) revealed through thematic analysis. Empirical findings from stage one The most common way of writing up the thematic  analysis is to describe and discuss each overarching theme in turn, stating examples from the data and using quotes to facilitate theme characterisation.Braun and Clarke  (2006) argue that the aim of compiling the thematic analysis is not merely a descriptive  summary of the content of the theme, but rather building a narrative that informs the  reader how research findings have cast light upon the issue in hand. Moreover, Symon  and Cassell (2012) highlighted that whatever approach is selected, the use of direct  quotes from the participants is necessary. These quotes should normally include both  short quotes to aid the understanding of specific points of interpretation and more  extensive passages would provide readers a flavour of the original texts.

Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay

Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay Compare and contrast Poppers Theory of Falsifiability and Kuhns Theory of Paradigms. What are the implications of each for the conduct of Social Science? Poppers theory of falsifiability and Kuhns theory of paradigms have some significant differences, although they both argue for falsification as the general research method for all scientific disciplines. Accordingly, the consequences for the approach in the Social Sciences differ as well. The overall statement of this essay will be that Poppers theory allows a more aim-oriented research, which means that one has (theoretically) the chance to solve social problems intentionally. The scientist has the opportunity to gather objective knowledge about the equally objective social reality. In Kuhns view this is not possible, since any research and knowledge is subjective, it is influenced by the scientists paradigm. But here, a scientist can interpret social behaviour on a large scale and from within a specific world view, a way that is not open for Popper. The opportunity to find the truth about social reality comes at the expense of explanatory power. In order to show these implications it is necessary to point out the aspects of both theories relevant for this analysis, contrasting their common starting point and highlighting the differences that are substantial for the analysis of their application in the Social Sciences. Possibilities and Limits for Scientists in Kuhns and Poppers Theories The relevant aspects for this comparison of Poppers and Kuhns theories are best displayed if they are contrasted within the categories of ontology, epistemology and methodology. Since both of the theories are highly comprehensive, a more detailed division would probably not do them justice. But these broad categories allow a sufficient contrast for the proposed argument and lead up to the necessary insights about the notions of scientific progress that the theorists have respectively. For Popper, an objective reality exists that can be observed (Popper 1963: 226). As a scientist with the proper understanding of science though it is never possible to be absolutely certain that one has definitely found this reality, this absolute truth (Popper 2002 : 24). Most of the scientific statements are relative; they constitute hypotheses, and are therefore by their very form not expressions of absolute truth (Popper 1962: 221). Likewise, Kuhn is convinced of the existence of an objective reality, a truth, but unlike Popper he does not believe in the possibility to describe it, to discover it at all. Any knowledge about this reality is subjective, is shaped by the social context, by the individual socialisation of the scientist (Kuhn 1963: 120). It is already at this point that Kuhns idea of paradigms has to be introduced, which emphasizes the centrality of this notion for the entire theory. Kuhns paradigm is a vague concept; it can best be described as covering a range of fa ctors in scientific development including or somehow involving laws and theories, models, standards, and methods (both theoretical and instrumental), vague intuitions, explicit or implicit metaphysical beliefs (or prejudices). In short, anything that allows science to accomplish anything can be a part of (or somehow involved in) a paradigm. (Shapere 1980: 29) It is a deeply psychological concept with a highly unconscious nature which explains the difficulty defining it, let alone in analyzing its impact on science. For Kuhn, these paradigms are the beginning of what he calls normal science (Kuhn 1963: 42f.). It is only with such a paradigm that a scientist has enough fundamental orientation in his discipline to begin real scientific work (Kuhn 1963: 79). It cannot be emphasized enough that the scientists are unaware of having these paradigms. It is not something that they deliberately chose, rather it is something they acquired through a process of socialization (Kuhn 1963: 47f.). This clearly describes the communal nature of a paradigm (original italics, Eckberg and Hill 1980: 122). Therefore, a scientist will always see the objective reality through the subjective glasses of his paradigm. As to the epistemology, the pure method of falsification faces the problem of an infinite regress; if falsification is applied to every scientific statement, the research would not lead anywhere. Popper and Kuhn both carry on the tradition of science as it has been established by Positivism. Nevertheless, they are also aware of the question about theory-neutrality in research and the said problem of infinite regress, but they give different answers to this dilemma. Popper introduces the notion of background knowledge (Popper 2002: 25), which is such basic knowledge without which the scientist would not be able to conduct research in his discipline. Nevertheless, it is as provisional as any knowledge, and is potentially falsifiable just as any scientific statement that deserves the name (Popper 2002: 65). The basic knowledge is therefore an individual, subjective choice made by the scientist, but it is a deliberate and conscious one (Lakatos 1970: 105; Popper 2002: 85; Popper 1963: 24 5) which cannot be said about the paradigm. This does equally provide a useful solution to the problem of an infinite falsification, but one that is adopted unconsciously, since it is linked so closely to the actual conception of reality shared by the scientific community. A deliberate commitment to basic knowledge contrasts an involuntary commitment to a paradigm (Kuhn 1963: 97). In this regard, the incommensurability of paradigms has to be mentioned (Smith 1998: 195; Lakatos 1970: 93). Paradigms can be compared to a religious belief held by scientists, and its psychological nature does not allow holding two paradigms simultaneously (Keat and Urry 1982: 62; Kuhn 1963: 93; 151). It is no exaggeration that the process of a paradigm change is described as revolutionary (Kuhn 1963: 91ff.). We therefore have the result of a socialization process against an individual, conscious choice. Kuhn as well as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾emphasize [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] the intimate and inevitable entanglement o f scientific observation with scientific theory (Kuhn 1970: 2). But whereas in Poppers belief this entanglement can be influenced by the scientist, it is determined and beyond any deliberate change intended by an individual in Kuhns world. With regard to the methodology, Popper emphasizes the logic of science, that science and specifically social science is defined by the chosen method, and not by its results (Popper 1962: 218). Falsification is applied to the theory or rather the hypotheses to be tested, not to the background knowledge (for the time being). The choice is subjective (and is therefore reflecting values), but it is deliberate and rational and therefore acceptable. In Kuhns theory however, paradigms provide the research frame, and falsification works within it but is never applied to this frame (Kuhn 1963: 80). Successful falsification provides problems to be solved within the paradigm; they are like pieces to a puzzle which is in its entirety unknown (Wolin 1980: 170). According to Kuhn, there is no logic of science (Shapere1980: 30), only interpretation within a given paradigm is possible. If there is no paradigm, the scientists work on establishing one, so as to start with normal science. During a cris is that leads to a paradigm change, contradicting facts and the new paradigm are developed simultaneously (Kuhn 1963: 96, 140; Kuhn 1970: 10). The results of such a falsification process within the paradigm therefore is exactly what Popper calls the sociology of knowledge (Popper 1962: 220), a socially constructed and determined knowledge, precisely what he tries to evade. These aspects of ontology, epistemology and methodology lead to the notions about the possible progress that science can achieve. For Popper, knowledge is cumulative, since falsification is also a method that helps to refine theories (Popper 2002: 24). Whether it is the adjustment or reformulation of a theory after a successful falsification, or the resistance of a theory to the tests, both results are considered to be an improvement (Popper 1963: 245). Although the theory in the latter case might not be true, it is scientifically superior to those already falsified. The continuous formulation and rejection of theories as well as the work on new problems with reformulated theories is all considered to be a (cumulative) development of knowledge (Popper 1963: 215, 222; Popper 1962: 221). For Kuhn on the other hand, there is no general progress of cumulative knowledge, only a change of paradigms over time (Kuhn 1963: 156). New paradigms are adopted because the scientific community consi ders it to have greater potential for the new (albeit only vague, in their entirety unknown) problems to be solved. They have an essentially rational factor, and seem to be more useful for future research (Keat and Urry 1982: 169). But paradigms are exclusive, not derived from one another (Smith 1998: 195). Since knowledge is so closely connected to them, any growth of knowledge cannot objectively be ascertained (Kuhn 1970: 20f.). At the most, a form of progress can be observed within the workings of normal science, during the process of puzzle-solving (Dogan 2001: 11025). But there is no progress in the sense of coming closer to the truth (Keat and Urry 1982: 169). Different Connections between Theory and Observation: Consequences for the Social Sciences This contrast highlights the most important aspects of Kuhns and Poppers theories that are relevant to analyze the consequences that both approaches have for the Social Sciences respectively. Both imply individual restrictions as well as possibilities for them and in Poppers case the theory imposes even a normative duty on the scientist. He argues for a unity of science concerning the methods, which means that the procedure of formulating hypotheses and subjecting them to tests of falsification should be applied in the Social Sciences just as in any other (Stokes 1997: 58). It is a method that best supports the aim of objective research, trying to prevent the scientist from adopting a narrow, selective perception that only discerns proofs for the own theory but not its failures. All Science is fundamentally characterized by the method applied (Popper 2002: 29). But for Popper, Social Science specifically should be characterized by something else; by the ethical awareness every research project ought to have (Stokes 1997: 69). Before this is explained in greater detail however, it must be emphasized that such a normative component is of course not derivable from the objective facts describing Poppers theory. No normative responsibility can be derived from an actual condition. But Poppers theory allows it, and the cons equences from his falsificationist approach for the Social Sciences are largely dominated by this obligation. Apart from the question whether one agrees with him, his argument also points out the consequences for the Social Sciences and his theory in general, and it is an essential part of his approach. Popper demands a fundamentally practical orientation in the Social Sciences, any research project should contribute to the solution of social problems of their time. He also argues for more ethical awareness in the Social Sciences; in this case he is a child of his time. This attitude comes from experiences with totalitarianism and fascism (Stokes 1997: 57). But what is important in this context is that Popper therefore agues for the individual influence of scientific as well as extra-scientific values: His argument is that the individual choice of the scientist does not only expand on values such as scientific precision or intersubjectivity of research findings, as it is reflected by the choice for falsification as a method and by the choice for falsifiable, but for now untested background knowledge. It also applies to the scientists aims, to the problems he chooses to investigate. Broadly speaking, any research should eventually try to reduce human suffering (Stokes 1997: 60). Even if one does not agree with Poppers demand here, it highlights the opportunities open to a scientists according to his theory. Knowledge is cumulative, so the scientist has the possibility to take a conscious part in this accumulation of knowledge about the (objective) social reality (Popper 1962: 221). This objective reality can be the focus of research since it is possible to gather knowledge about it. Even the most fundamental assumptions or convictions, the background knowledge, can be questioned and altered. Any social influence on our knowledge can eventually be evaded, indirectly, by the choice of falsification as a method and by unconventional or for its time unusual choice of research topics. The scientist has not only the opportunity to discover the objective social reality, he can (and in Poppers view must) also endeavour to define the social problems of his time and propose solutions for it. This emphasis on the objective social reality as the focus and the denial of any socially constructed limits of the research has even further implications. There are abstract as well as tangible objects in Social Science. Its scientists are engaged in analyzing social problems, general phenomenons or dynamics, things that have an undeniably abstract nature. On the other hand though it is the individual who is identified as the causal unity of these phenomenons, it is the objective, observable reality which has to be the center for any hypotheses or theory that fulfills the criteria of falsifiability. A theory that has a holistic character and applies to the abstract objects of social reality itself cannot meet the standards for intersubjective testing, for an experiment to be repeated and tested over and over again (Popper 1962: 218). So while the eventual aim is of course to understand the dynamics and causes of abstract constructs in social reality, its research is restricted to th e individual. On the one hand, Poppers scientist can therefore consciously choose his object of research, can be specifically aim-oriented, and is therefore not limited to a purely explanatory role. On the other hand, it is impossible for him to consciously work within a specific, personal belief about the social reality that he never questions during his research (Popper 1962: 212). Explanations within the belief systems like Marxism or elitism that intend to explain social reality within this frame are therefore not possible, since these beliefs do not fulfill the standards of permissible background knowledge. A last remark has to be made on Poppers view about the Social Sciences. It is exactly against the perceived dangers of such social frames that he argues for the publicity of Science (Stokes 1997: 74; Popper 1962: 217f.). To complete the standards of critical research, to guarantee that intersubjectivity and falsifiability are adhered to the results (and the method) of research have to be published. The critical appraisal by other scientists is needed to establish the highest possible objectivity. The strength of Poppers approach lies therefore in the fact that the scientist has more free will in choosing his objectives, and that this choice also implies a normative choice. This is the consequence of Poppers particular connection between theory and observation, that science is not value-free, neither on the level of aims nor when it comes to its method, but these values are acceptable as long as they are a conscious choice. For a scientist in Kuhns approach though this choice is made for him by the paradigm. In the case that there is no paradigm yet, scientists have not even entered the stage of real scientific progress of their discipline; they have not yet started with normal science (Kuhn 1963: 79). According to Kuhn, this is exactly the case for the Social Sciences (Kuhn 1970: 6; Wolin 1980: 169). But even if the Social Sciences had already acquired a paradigm in Kuhns definition, such aim-oriented research like Popper proposes it would not be possible. The scientist would of course have an objective for his research, but he cannot claim to have chosen it objectively, let alone having done so out of the normative conviction to ultimately discover and evade any social aspect to his research and knowledge. This social influence that the scientist is unaware of is but the starting point for real research, also in the Social Sciences. Some consider the different schools within Social Sciences as paradigms, although this contradicts the unconscious character of a paradigm according to Kuhns interpretation. It is argued that overarching concepts such as paradigms built on more solid ground in the natural sciences than in the social sciences, because in the former truth is universal, in the latter, contextual. (Dogan 2001: 11026) If paradigms are going to appear in the Social Sciences, they will only be realized in the narrow form of different schools that are not characterized by incommensurability, but by mutual avoidance (Dogan 2001: 11024). Even though this idea does not realize all characteristics of a paradigm, its example is most useful here. The Scientist does of course not enjoy the freedom that he has in Poppers view. He is exposed to the norms of his school and he has to realize that even an approach that he considers to be most revolutionary and unconventional is probably still within the boundaries of th is school. For the rare case that such deviant behavior should happen despite the deep socialization of the individual scientist, then the paradigmatic community will not tolerate it and most likely simply ignore his findings (Wolin 1980: 167f.). It is not possible for an individual to deliberately convince all the members of this specific attitude to change it radically. Such change is incremental and therefore happens only gradually (Wolin 1980: 175). But then he can explain the social reality from this particular point or belief system. He has possibilities for explanation that are unavailable for a scientist in Poppers theory. It is not without coincidence that Marxism is considered to be such a powerful school in Social Science that it comes close to what Kuhn describes as a paradigm (Dogan 2001: 11026), a school that is given as one of the typical examples (Popper 1962: 212) of the social bias and subjectivity that has to be avoided according to Popper. Intersubjectivity is a therefore an important value for Kuhn as well as for Popper, but whereas this scientific value only applies within the paradigmatic community for Kuhn, for Popper it is precisely the means to evade such influence. The social reality that is always perceived subjectively can therefore be thoroughly explained and described from within these world views, and the progress scientists make with this kind of research is relatively substantial, since they can accept more easily the findings of their colleagues. They can interpret behavior, specific social rules, and are not restricted to describe individual behavior like Popper. But this advantage in explaining social phenomena therefore comes at the price of aim-oriented research such as it is possible in Poppers view. The puzzle-solving process during normal science is after all defined by the fact that the bigger picture of the puzzle is unknown (Wolin 1980: 170). Accepting a paradigm and work within its boundaries is compared to a kind of religious change (Lakatos 1970: 93). The scientist cannot make its structures visible, not on purpose at least. He has to rely on the intangible dynamic that characterizes normal science. He has only the possibil ity to choose scientific values, and even that only to a limited extent (Kuhn 1963: 17). He also has to accept that there are possibly some social problems or facts of the objective social reality that does, after all, exist that he does not perceive at all due to his paradigm. And if the Social Science is truly without a paradigm so far, the stage of normal research where a form of progress is finally possible has not even begun. Conclusion Both Poppers theory of falsification and Kuhns theory of paradigms assume the existence of an objective social reality and are convinced of the merits of falsification as the acceptable method for its research. They are equally considering the problem of theory neutrality in the Social Sciences as well as continuing the tradition of Positivism that does not see a fundamental difference for science within its different disciplines. Nevertheless, Kuhn and Popper differ in their opinions about the acceptable solution to this question about theory-neutrality, about the relation between theory and observation. Poppers ontology and epistemology demand potential falsifiability for all scientific statements in order to discover this objective truth and evade the pitfalls of the subjective bias. What he considers to be the absolute fall of science is only its beginning in Kuhns view. Only paradigms, unconscious social frameworks, allow progressive research, and any knowledge about reality mus t be subjective. The consequences of Poppers view for Social Sciences in particular consist in the possibility to deliberately work on the social problems of the time, and in the conviction that the any social fact can eventually be discovered. It comes at a reduced ability to explain social phenomena holistically and from within a specific worldview that cannot be operationalised into falsifiable hypotheses. This is exactly what a researcher in Kuhns world can do, albeit at the expense of the said advantages Poppers scientist has.

My Growth as a Writer at State University Essay -- My First Year at St

If I had to describe my year at State University it would be just as describing a rollercoaster ride with a good experience afterwards. At first, you are convinced with the idea that the rollercoaster is going to be all fun full with laughter. All those advertisements and pictures of people having a good time and people saying it was fun afterwards. The real thing though, happens during the rollercoaster ride when you feel like the life you are living is going to end so badly. The same happened to me while at State University, I thought college was going to be full of fun and that stress and worries would perhaps eventually come, but not in the way I experienced them. The home sickness or as Sanders (n.d.) refers to it in â€Å"After the Flood† as nostalgia, stress with projects, tests, essays, and the management of money to pay bills were some of the main causes of why my year at State University felt like a rollercoaster about to crash. At the end though, there were some challenging tasks that had a positive scholarly impact on me. Just as in the movie â€Å"Up† by Docter and Peterson (2009) the main character Carl has a tough time during his life when his wife passes away, but in the end he manages to find something good which produced positive effects in his life like accomplishing his dream to see South America. Writing class helped me write about what I was interested in for my research paper as well as improving the way I wrote down my thoughts; somehow the writing class along with the research paper have helped me write more thoughtful, polished essays. I have grown as a writer and thinker in ways years ago I had no idea I was going to grow in. At first, it was really hard for me to write down every single th... ...the book â€Å"The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian† by Alexie (2007) at first thought he was not capable of doing things the white people did, but then he actually proves to himself that he is capable of learning just as or better than the white people can. I am convinced that for future writing classes I will welcome knowledge and guidelines with my arms wide open knowing that it will polish my writing. Therefore bringing only more improvements that in the end will give me the tools necessary to be capable of confronting my life in International Business and its challenges in the best way possible. Works Cited Alexie, S. (2007). The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian. United States: Little, Brown and Company. Docter, P., & Peterson, B. (Directors). (2009). Up [Motion Picture]. United States. Sanders, S. R. (n.d.). After the Flood.

Early Erectus Tools Found in China :: essays papers

Early Erectus Tools Found in China In the January/February issue of Archaeology magazine, the article "Early Homo erectus Tools in China" holds additional, yet questionable information about the foundations of the genus Homo. After recent findings of stone tools and animal bones at Renzidong (Renzi Cave) in Anhui Province, eastern China, Chinese scientists have concluded that Homo erectus may have been established there 400,000 years earlier than formerly believed, almost 2.25 million years ago. Besides this site being one of the oldest for findings of early hominins, it has fueled, "[†¦] a debate on the origins of our genus Homo, with some Chinese scientists proposing an evolution of H. erectus in China parallel to that [†¦] in Africa"(14). A limestone cave at Longgupo ("Dragon Hill") in Sichuan Province is also in the spotlight for the "[†¦] East-West debate [†¦]", over Homo origins (14). This cave has produced a 2 million year old mandible fragments with features supporting both ideas of origins from the Chinese and West, not yielding to a single, simple explanation. As to where these apes made their signature development onto the open, flat land is debated indefinitely. Approximately 1.7 million years ago, Homo erectus arose in Africa and shortly thereafter spread to other continents, as most scientists believe. As they expanded their range and increased in population, H. erectus may have exterminated H. habilis. Then transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens occurred about 400,000 years ago, and the dispute is over the place of origin of modern humans. "There is considerable controversy among scientists as to whether the transition to H. sapiens took place only in Africa, or the evolution of modern humans occurred simultaneously on three continents" (Purves 515). With little information that we have now, a strong, clear hypothesis with support is lacking. But these newly recovered fosiils and tools in Renzidong may change things around. The "out of Africa" hypothesis suggests a single origin in Africa followed by several dispersal’s. The "multiregional" hypothesis, in contrast, proposes parallel origins of Homo in different regions of Europe, Africa, and Asia. But the Chinese believe in the "Asian Hypothesis", or Asian origins of the genus. Both sides agree that plate tectonic movements caused climatic changes from East Africa to East Asia. The weather tended to be more "[†¦] seasonal and arid", instigating arboreal apes to move onto the savannah and evolve into upright hominins (Ciochon 15).

freeaw A Womans Fight for Independence in Kate Chopins The Awakening :: Chopin Awakening Essays

A Woman's Fight for Independence in The Awakening Right from the beginning the plot is almost conveniently evident. You find a woman, Edna Pontellier, tired of living her life as a pampered and "owned" wife and mother. She is searching for much more in her life, some sort of meaning for her whole existence. She searches for a long time but in the end, the inevitability of her life's pattern and direction wraps around her, suffocating her. She is overcome with wonder, confusion, and guilt for what she believes and what she does to express her beliefs. She finally finds a way to beat the "proper" 1890's lifestyle by committing suicide. During this story Edna struggles with three main opposing powers. First, there is the society's opinion of what a woman's "roles" in life was and how they should act, look, and feel. Second, is her independent nature. The last opposing power she comes across is her undying love for the charming Robert Lebrun. It is the unwritten rule that a woman should marry, have children, and be happy and content with that as their life. Society portrays this to be a woman's rightful job and duty. A woman should act and look "proper" at all times. This is what Edna is fighting against in this novel. She feels that, though many women agree with this "known" rule, it isn't fair. For six years Edna conforms to these ideas by being a "proper" wife and mother, holding Tuesday socials and going to operas, following the same enduring schedule. It is only after her summer spent at Grand Isle that her "mechanical" lifestyle becomes apparent to her. She sees how much she is unhappy with the expectations, held by society, of her life and she wishes to erase them and live her life as she wants. Edna has an independent, almost self centered, nature about her. Her need for an uncontrolled lifestyle is what leaves her feeling "owned" and wanting to break that label; she fights to do as she wishes. Little by little she breaks free of society's' image, letting her independence shine through. She cancels her Tuesday socials and helps out around the house doing little chores. The biggest step she made was her decision to move away from her mansion and into the "pigeon house", a little cottage around corner.

School Community Leadership

It is the role of every school leader to provide an environment for education and learning to happen inside the classroom. He/she must embrace the responsibility of guiding and imparting the proper amount of skills and programs necessary for growth and sustainability. Seeing this complex and difficult relationship, school community leaders must strive towards achieving the overall goals of educational institutions. In the end, school community leadership is the way a principal or head balances the challenges of the school and community to provide changes for the better by possessing the skills and traits to do so. Looking at the concept, school community leadership can be defined to be a process wherein the principal addresses the issues surrounding both school and the community. â€Å"In a nutshell, school community leadership concentrates on the things a principal should do to develop and nurture culture, climate and vision of the school that is supportive of all stakeholders and helps them succeed† (Wilmore, 2003, p. 12). Looking at the definition, it is first to implore on the community and how it affects the way decisions and programs are made. By doing this, readers can better comprehend the importance of such trait towards growth and sustenance The concept of community is an important definition to tackle when dealing with the idea of school community leadership. One important facet is that the community continues to shape and develop various school issues. Since schools are part and partial components of a community, leaders must create a striking balance towards partnership and harmonization of both experience and practice (Glanz, 2006). By fostering such relationship, educators can devise models and plans to synchronize the goals and objectives of both the community and school towards students. Another important concept to consider is the relevance of leadership towards educational development. It can be argued that there are various leadership styles that can be used and applied towards the achievement of the goal, however due to this; the concept becomes elusive in nature. This can be contended because though there have been numerous improvements in the literature surrounding leadership models, â€Å"contemporary theories of leadership represent authoritative opinion that is not supported by scholarly research† (Spry and Graham, 2006, p. ). Due to this, the challenge of educational leaders is to find the appropriate style suited for both the community and the learning environment of students. There are several important traits a school community leader must possess. These include (1) effective communication, (2) openness to change and improvements, and (3) participation. Communication is vital in the process of harmonization and practices because it enables process es to be effective and efficient. Without communication, there shall be disparities between what is being taught and practiced which could later spell troubles and difficulties. On the other hand, openness to developments is also another trait a leader must posses in this field. Realizing the constant diversity and continuing changes in the environment, educational leaders must be adaptive to these changes so as to foster continued sustenance and growth (Spry and Graham, 2006). By doing this, they can make the overall system dynamic and susceptible towards change. Lastly, participation is another vital process to consider as it provides avenues for improvement and change. This process of partaking with both the community and school can help put into practice the needs of both parties. To conclude, the challenge remains for educational leaders to promote school community leadership. By realizing the importance of such attribute to both students and society and by applying the necessary traits and skills, only then can the process of sustenance and growth can be achieved by both parties.

The Teacher Preparation Programme Education Essay

approach t each(prenominal)ing pr impressicum is peck of the instructor provision division. Every scholarly person instructors demands to abide culture pr snatchicum in browse to determination their did practiceics assorts so as University of Malaya TESL ( education English as second lingual communication ) under(a)graduates. University of Malaya TESL undergraduates need to travel for education practicum during their 4th year in say to finish their class, bach in gentility ( TESL ) in University of Malaya.No uncertainty tuition practicum is an of import constituent in instructor training programmes. It is beca use of franks and services retarding practicum is a animate challenge for the tamechild instructors where they need to use the theories that they hit lookt in the schoolroom. The term example training embracings all the encyclopaedism reckons of scholarly person instructors in schools ( Ashraf, 1999 ) . The term number management has trine major intensions the practicing of encyclopedism accomplishments and accomplishment of the function of a instructor the whole scope of experiences that students go finished with(predicate) in schools and the applicatory facets of the class as distinct from notional surveies ( St geniuss and Morris, 1977 ) . During the pedagogy practicum, scholarly person instructors atomic number 18 able to derive experience of find out in the schoolroom and chink to raise instructor-like personalities. At the same clip, they impart be exposed to school civilization and learn to map as a sh be of a school staff beyond schoolroom charge ( Laila Hairani, 1996 ) . alike that, learnedness practicum whateverways provides salient befall to rise pour down instructors to go socialised into the affair ( Furlong et.al, 1988 ) . scholar instructors prevalent presentation during their centering specimen exit bode and harbinger the hereafter success of the instructor .This travel along aims to put across emerge University of Malaya TESL undergraduates thoughts round encyclopedism practicum. Beliefs considered as an of import mental concept to teacher study ( Pintrich, 1990 ) . When schoolchild teachers come to university or travel for schooling practicum, they bring many a(prenominal) beliefs astir(predicate) education. These beliefs whitethorn ensue from their experiences as a student in their weigh period. Furthermore, scholarly person instructors experiences in the university through the ruleological analysis categories, simulated learn for TESL, and other(a) relevant activities entrust in any event act upon the prep bement of pupils beliefs virtually centering practicum.The bing beliefs of pupil instructors should be considered in the instructor development programme as these beliefs interact with their accomplishment unconscious process ( Esen Uzuntiryaki, 2007 ) . Namely, such beliefs would act upon pupil in structors to construe and analyze the pedagogical cognition, conceptualization of acquire undertakings, their instruction determinations and their schoolroom expression ( King, Shumow & A Lietz, 2001 Pajargons, 1992 ) . at that placefore, throughout the instructor instruction programme, it is genuinely of import for the lectors to place pupil instructors beliefs just about(predicate) cultivation practicum before they go for existent instruction and promote them to chew over upon these beliefs ( Esen Uzuntiryaki, 2007 Mellado, 1998 Southerland & A Gess-New nearly, 1999 ) . If lectors empathise and know pupil instructors beliefs about instruction, lectors would h doddering different outlooks from them. Besides, it would as well be a great chance for lectors to assist pupil instructors to restore their positions about instructor functions. This whitethorn decidedly act upon the manner pupil instructors receive and procedure cognition, recognise and accept set and de velop and heighten accomplishments needed for effectual instruction ( Clarita M. de Leon-Carillo, 2007 ) .In short, each pupil forget convey their ain positions and outlook on information when they come ining a instructor instruction programme. This paper will be discoursing University of Malaya TESL undergraduates beliefs about encyclopedism practicum.Background of the seeThe debut of the instructor instruction administration was due to the recommendation made by Wolley Committee in 1980. It is make to tack instructors for school. Harmonizing to the surveies, the schools were undergoing rapid growing in the earlyish nineteenth degree centigrade hence, it needed a big Numberss of instructors that clip. For that ground, different programmes or teacher facility establishments existed to develop instructor of regimen schools, government-assisted schools and even common schools. There were three chief teacher developing establishmentsNon-graduate establishments which allo w in the assorted instructor formulation colleges and centresTeachers colleges and centres administered by the Ministry of genteelness atomic number 18 non afflicted to any university. The Ministry of information is responsible for evidenceing classs for surveies and attesting prospered campaigners in a centrally-controlled scrutiny. The scrutiny boards, nevertheless, atomic number 18 composed of representatives from different colleges. The instructors colleges offer twain-year full-time class. A three-year class was provided from 1956 to 1968 for pupils who possess merely three old ages of secondary coil school makings.Graduate teacher conceptualisation establishments, that is to say , University of Malaya Faculty of Education, University Sains Malaysia Centre for educational Studies and University Kebangsaan Department of EducationThe graduate instructor homework establishments administered by the universities enjoy a big step of liberty though they depend upon the Ministry of Education for fiscal support. hotshot of the alumnus instructor preparation establishments, University of Malaya has embarked on a series of experiments in teacher instruction and modified the instructor instruction classs to carry through its function as a beginning of furnish of alumnus instructors. For illustration, from the 1971/72 Sessionss, the Diploma of Education blood line has modified and consisted of the undermentivirtuosod Foundations of Education ( 5 units ) , Methodology of encyclopaedism ( 2 units ) and commandment radiation pattern ( 3 units ) .In-service instructor preparation programmesHarmonizing to Francis ( 1972 ) , during the British disposal small attend was gainful to preparation of instructors. When Peninsular Malaysia became case-by-case in 1957, upgrading the quality of instructors became the precedence of the Ministry of Education. The types of classs before long available may be separate into four major groupsinitial instructor pre paration classs held during holidaies for impermanent untrained instructors accompaniment full-time classs for trained instructorfull-time and holiday classs for trained instructors to utilize Malay as the medium of direction and to learn English as 2nd lingual communicationholiday classs for the upgrading of qualified instructors in the assorted subjects.No affair what establishments you were traveling, breeding practicum is ace of the classs that you need to undergo in order to graduate from the establishment to go a instructor. Teacher Training share of the Ministry of Education Malaysia regarded the instruction pattern as a series of hard-nosed and overbearing school experiences to assist pupil instructors to go professional in their instruction duty ( Malaysia Education Ministry, 1990 ) . The pupils learning field experience is an indispensable constituent of larning to learn and oversee dramas an of import function ( Zahorik, 1988 ) .Harmonizing to the National Educati on Philosophy Malaysia, instruction in Malaysia is an on-going onrush towards further developing the ascendancy of persons in a holostic and incorporate mode, so as to bring forth persons who are intelectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic, ground on a steadfast belief in and devotedness to God. Such an attempt is designed to bring forth Malaysian citizens who are knowing and competent, who possess in high spirits moral criterions and who are responsible and commensurate of accomplishing high degree of personal populace assistance either number smashing as being able to lend to the consonant rhyme and improvement of the household, the society and the state at big .Over a century ago the laminitiss of normal schools introduce learning pattern as an built-in portion of the course of study for the prospective childlike school instructor. During this century learning pattern in secondary schools became a model portion of the professional course of study in all types of colleges and universities. Since 1969, the instruction pattern agreements at the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya produce underg integrity some extremist alterations in order to emission into student instructors demands each berth wide as to run into the National Education Philosophy Malaysia. Today, pupils are paired harmonizing to their runner method option. During the instruction pattern, the pupil instructor conducts schoolroom lessons and performs the responsibilities of a instructor in school. Furthermore, this period of practical experience, pupil instructors will be guided and supervised by executive programs and co-operative instructors in the school.The instructor preparation division introduced the clinical supervising theoretical business relationship ( Goldhammer, 1966 ) for all the instructor preparation colleges or universities in Malaya from June to October 1989. This theoretical account focuses on the integrating of intentning, observation, rating and analysis of lessons. The pupil instructors schoolroom public presentation is observed, recorded, analysed and paid attention to the content and method facets of lesson execution. apiece supervisor will do a reappraisal and measure pupil instructors public presentation in term of strengths and failings in instruction and to concentrate on countries for attending and go againstment. The supervisor plays an of import function in learning pattern as they need to steer and confer with the peculiar pupil instructors based on their public presentation.Bachelor of EducationTeaching as 2nd lingual communication ( TESL ) programme offered through University of MalayaTeaching as 2nd linguistic communication ( TESL ) is a four twelvemonth class. school-age childs who undergo and specialize in TESL class will larn and get the bent-grass patterns in instruction of English as 2nd linguistic communication. They will be trained for callings as English li nguistic communication instructors. The module of instruction of University Malaya will set up the classs which heavy central point on applied and theoretical linguistic, instructors ethnic, specialisation in learning methodological analysis and techniques, every bit good as programmes that prepare pupil instructors for the doctorial work in the subjects.In order to finish the grade, undergraduates need to carry through the class demand. The undermentioned tabular set is the illustration of class construction for the divorced man of instruction ( get downing admittance session 2007/08 ) that undergraduates are needed to carry through during the four old ages class.Form the tabular arraies, the mean cognition hours for each topic in each class is about three acknowledgment hours. However, learning practicum consists of eight hr for itself entirely. It tells us that learning practicum plays an of import function in the whole instruction programme. Teaching pattern is normally implemented during the cerebrate stratum of the instructor instruction programme. It is because the aim of practicum is to indorsement that pupil instructors get accomplishments, cognition, place and the values throughout the classs that are required by every professional instructor. The major strain of the instruction pattern is on learning and see both in and out of the schoolroom and development of appropriate temper traits of a instructor. Teaching practicum is a scathing constituent of Teacher Education Programme. If pupils instructors had a incorrect beliefs about learning practicum, and they will decidedly neglect to get the bring up learning methodological analysis, learning cultural and some other accomplishments provided by the university. Besides that, they will too confront troubles during learning practicum. The pupil instructors would endure when they go for learning pattern when they are in the concluding degree.In a nutshell, each and every instruction inst itute is making their sur capitulum to supply the most suited classs in order to bring forth a professional instructor in the hereafter. However, one s beliefs will uncomplicated fix one s larning attitude every bit good as one s learning presentation no affair during the learning procedure or in the hereafter. Therefore, anyways supplying the good classs, the university besides needs to take pupils beliefs into storey so that the governments and the lectors could learn and leave the justly instruction beliefs about learning practicum to the pupil. For case, the university dismiss concentrate more on the dogma of Education to assist pupils to see better the reputation of a human existences every bit good as the nature of larning manner. If the university understands what the pupil instructors concerns are and what are the beliefs that curb them from larning and execute better during microteaching, the university preserve easy set the classs to accommodate the pupils de mands and fix the pupils to the instruction practicum.Statement of the excogitateTeaching Practicum is by and large recognized both at bottom and outside Malaysia that most pupils are untrained in asseverating that learning pattern is one of the most valuable and one of the trounce conducted parts of preparation ( Francis & A Paul, 1973 ) . wherefore Francis & A Paul described learning practicum as the worst conducted parts of preparation? It is because pupil instructors redeem to play two functions at the same clip which are a scholar and a co-teacher. assimilator instructors are expected to show what they cod possess the cognition and accomplishments through teacher instruction classs viz. planning, developing the lesson, pass oning, pull offing the schoolroom and besides measuring the pupils. Besides that, they are besides expected to follow professional attitude to their work as a co-teacher.There are some(prenominal) topics provided in teacher instruction classs, sequence learning practicum is one country in which the instructor preparation colleges and the universities portion many common jobs. hotshot of the jobs is that pupil instructors may keep profoundly to their beliefs about learning practicum indirectly uphold their public presentation in learning during learning practicum or even in their hereafter learning calling. As we know, whenever pupils were to larn a new topic or to expose to a more overambitious cognition, they will keep to their beliefs in order to do themselves comfy to the state of affairs. However, pupil may hold some monstrous thoughts about the peculiar topics, so as the pupil instructors. Some of the pupil instructors may transport a positive and even off belief about teacher practicum opus some may non. This affair is really of import because ill-timed scholar beliefs will negatively feign their presentation every bit good as their public presentation in category. Student instructors may non portray thems elves absolutely as a professional instructor when they hold wrong beliefs about instruction.This paper is to look into TESL undergraduates beliefs about learning practicum after they have undergone several programmes provided by Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. It is to see if they have common beliefs about learning practicum and it would forecast if the pupil instructors held a correct or wrong belief about learning practicum. more pupil instructors beliefs about school come from their experiences as pupils. They have formed feelings about themselves and their abilities, about the nature of cognition, and about how learning takes topographic point. So, this paper would critique and foreground on TESL undergraduates beliefs about learning practicum on two major constituents, viz. the anterior to learning practicum and schoolroom direction.Aims of the seeThe aims of the survey are listed belowTo discover the University of Malaya TESL undergraduates anterior beli efs about learning practicum.To look into and place the constituents of the teacher instruction plan that sustain to construct their beliefs about learning practicum.Research QuestionsFor the intent of this survey, relevant informations are required to reply the undermentioned inquiriesWhat are the University of Malaya TESL undergraduates anterior beliefs about learning practicum?What are the constituents of the teacher instruction plan that help to construct pupil instructors beliefs about learning practicum?Definition of cardinal groundworksBeliefsThere are different ways to depict beliefs. H.A. Hodges utter belief is a moral act for which the truster is to be held responsible , while Frank Pajares explained it as a delimit beliefs is at best a high of participants pick. They travel in camouflage and much under alias-attitudes, values, judgements, maxims, political orientation, perceptual experiences, personal theories, internal mental procedure, constructs, action sch emes, regulations of pattern, practical rules, positions, repertories of apprehension, and societal scheme.PracticumThe signifi lavatoryce of practicum in this stage setting is a specialised field of survey that is designed to picture pupils supervised practical application of antecedently studied surmisal after undergo class in school or college.Teaching PracticumTeaching Practicum is the last of the series of pedagogical classs. A pupil instructor is asked to learn under the supervising of a certified instructor in order to measure up for a grade in instruction. Student instructors use this chance to execute instruction theory and to widen their practical experiences.Student TeacherStudent instructor is corresponding with the term trainee instructor. Student instructor is a selected campaigner who has been enrolled for the instructor instruction programme class and is under the counsel of an university supervisor and other forces involved in the supervisory undertaking.1.6 Sig nificance of the surveyThis survey aims to garner and analyze relevant informations which will supply the necessary information so that a description of the beliefs about learning practicum of TESL undergraduates of University of Malaya can be obtained.The focal point of the job of the survey is to place what the University of Malaya TESL undergraduates beliefs about learning practicum are. The consequence of the information analysis would so assist us every bit good as other pedagogues to swot a better understanding towards pupil instructors beliefs about instruction and besides learning practicum. We may place if the pupil instructors have carried a incorrect belief about learning practicum all the clip. It will non merely profit the pedagogues, but the pupils will understand better about themselves and acknowledge which is the decline or incorrect belief they have.Many argue that wrong pupil instructors beliefs would negatively impact their teaching attitude. Through the sur vey, the findings would give each pedagogue a great chance to alter and modified the instruction system and organize a footing for suggesting a better programme for pupils to determine their position of instructors function. Furthermore, pedagogues may make a better environment every bit good as learning course of study to fix the pupil instructors to learn efficaciously and leave them the passion of instruction. at long last but non least, placing fluctuation of pupils beliefs may besides increase pupils degree of assurance. Once pupils have their ain beliefs, they would non happen instruction is a hard undertaking. Through the survey, we can besides see what pupil instructors have nimble for learning practicum. Subsequently the pupils would see beliefs as a chief beginning that would impact personal development and the acquisition and learning procedure.1.7 Restrictions of the surveyThe restriction to this research is that it is through merely questionnaires. Although it is go od and proved method of making research through the assembly of informations, it is still restricted to certain types of inquiries. In add-on, there are a hardly a(prenominal) of survey sing beliefs about learning practicum in Malaysia context.Besides that, this research is restrain to 40 undergraduates of University of Malaya merely. While the findings of the survey can be used for pulling decisions about the beliefs about learning practicum of this university, they can non inevitably be generalise to other university undergraduates. In add-on, the Numberss of undergraduates who participate in this research do non stand for a complete canvass of all the undergraduates in this university nor other universities.Pintrich, P. R. ( 1990 ) . Deductions of psychological research on pupils larning and college instruction for teacher instruction. Handbook of research on instructor instruction ( pp. 826-857 ) . New York Macmillan.