A Comparison of Socrates’ and Luther’s Ideas of Freedom

Despite a difference of around two millennia, or 2000 years, the claims to freedom of the Greek philosopher Socrates and the German Leader of the Protestant Reformation Martin Luther lend themselves to both similarities and differences.Although there are more differences than similarities, the two works have both not only expressed the dreams and aspirations of these two great man but especially changed the societies in which they lived, although gradually.This paper will discuss the similarities between Socrates’ claims in the Apology and those of Luther in Concerning Christian Liberty. This paper will discuss the similarities between Socrates’ claims to freedom in the Apology and those of Luther in Concerning Christian Liberty.SimilaritiesThe claims of Socrates and Luther to certain freedoms share a few similarities.An Exhortation to Oppose Established Institutions. Both Socrates’ and Luther’s claims for freedom exhorted people to oppose established inst itutions. While Socrates tried to undermine the immoral ways of Athenian society, Luther wanted to expose the defects in the theological bases of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.Socrates, on one hand, criticized Athenian society when he said, â€Å"If there were a law at Athens, such as there is in other cities, that a capital cause should not be decided in one day, then I believe that I should have convinced you† (Apology).And somehow he implied a certain attachment of Athenians to money when he said, â€Å"I tell you that virtue is not given by money, but that from virtue come money and every other good of man, public as well as private.† (Apology)On the other hand, Luther exhorted Christians and Catholics to question the theological basis of the Catholic doctrines. He expressed his opposition when he mentioned every time he mentioned that works were not a path to spiritual salvation but only faith and faith alone. Aside from this, he mentioned that: "†¦it will profit nothing that the body should be adorned with sacred vestments, or dwell in holy places, or be occupied in sacred offices, or pray, fast, and abstain from certain meats, or do whatever works can be done through the body and in the body.† (Luther)DifferencesThe claims of Socrates and Luther to certain freedoms also lend themselves to a number of differences from the notion of their freedoms to the way they have presented their claims.Notion of Freedom. Socrates and Luther were both fighting for different kinds of freedoms.First of all, one of the freedoms that Socrates was fighting for was more of a freedom of expression, or specifically a general freedom to question the logic that operated behind the Athenian justice system. The Athenian Meletus accused Socrates of being â€Å"a doer of evil, and corrupter of the youth, and he does not believe in the gods of the state, and has other new divinities of his own† (Apology).To this accusation, Socratesà ¢â‚¬â„¢ sarcastically claims his freedom of expression by saying, â€Å"If my offence is unintentional, the law has no cognizance of unintentional offences; you ought to have taken me privately, and warned and admonished me† (Apology). This is the more personal freedom that Socrates was fighting for in the course of his defense. Socrates proved Meletus’ illogic several times during his defense so Socrates was indirectly making here a claim for the freedom of the mind through logic.As for the other freedom that Socrates seemed to have been fighting for was the freedom of philosophy. This freedom was implied when Socrates said, Men of Athens, I honor and love you; but I shall obey God rather than you, and while I have life and strength I shall never cease from the practice and teaching of philosophy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Apology). Such a statement was naturally taken by the Athenian court as a defiance of the authority of the state that defined obedience to God as obedience to the laws rather than to one’s philosophy.Furthermore, Socrates’ claim for this freedom and his defense of it in Plato’s Apology was more of a defense of personal convictions considering that Socrates himself was on trial at the time that he declared his claims for this freedom.Based on the aforementioned points, the idea of freedom of Socrates was different from that proposed by Luther. Luther’s ideas were more on religion rather than on logic and philosophy. Luther expressed the nature of the freedom that he claims when he said, â€Å"For faith alone, and the efficacious use of the word of God, brings salvation† (Luther). This therefore is a freedom from works, and is explicitly stated by Luther when he said, â€Å"†¦this faith cannot consist at all with works†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Luther) and that â€Å"†¦no work can cleave to the word of God†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Luther).

Country of origin, consumer’s Perception and Brand Image Essay

Introduction The impact of country of origin (COO) on the consumer’s perception of products has been one of the most widely studied areas of international marketing. Increasing globalization of today’s business has resulted in unprecedented problems for manufacturers, marketers, and consumers (L. Y. Lin & Chen, 2006). The country of origin (where a product is made) touches both consumer evaluations of the product as well as the firm’s decision to manufacture its goods in certain countries and how to brand (Parkvithee & Miranda, 2012). Country-of-origin or in other words the â€Å"Made in† is a concept which states that people constitutes attitudes and believes shaping the perceptions to products from specific countries and this influences purchase and consumption behaviors in international markets. The â€Å"Made In† image is the picture, the reputation, the stereotype that businessmen and consumers attach to products of a specific country (Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Gaedeke, 1973; Johansson, 1989; Nagashima, 1970, 1977, Zain and Yasin, 1997). Country-of-origin image (COI) has a strong influence on consumer behavior in the global market, as it is associated with mass communication, personal experience, as well as brand image. COI is defined as the consumer’s perception formed of a certain product offering according to this offering’s country of origin (Samiee, 1994; Peterson and Jolibert, 1995, Leonidou et al, 1999). The country, the type of product, and the image of the company and its brands all influence whether the country of origin will engender a positive or negative reaction. A variety of generalization can be made about country of origin effects on products and brands. Consumers tend to have stereotypes about products and countries that have been formed by experience, hearsay, and myth (Piron, 2000, p. 308; Roth and Rameo, 1992, p.479). Stereotypes of country and the preference of customer influence the purchase intention. Political system, culture and the economy of the country can be a  cause of sensitivity to people (Teo, Mohamad, & Ramayah, 2011). For instance, in 2006, protestors across the Muslim world demonstrated against the publications of cartoon images â€Å"Prophet Mohammed† in a Danish newspaper therefore many boycotted Danish products and many supermarkets in Cairo removed Danish products from their shelves. The question that this paper will attempt to answer is â€Å"To what extent does the country of origin image affect consumer perceptions, brand image and purchase intentions†. Previous research indicates that consumers’ and businesses’ evaluations are based on their assessment of product cues, which may be intrinsic (taste, design, performance) or extrinsic (brand name, country of origin). Buyers often make judgments about product quality and purchase value on the basis of extrinsic cues, especially when it is difficult to evaluate the intrinsic value of a product. This justifies the reason behind using the country of origin as an extrinsic cue in order to judge any foreign product. This paper also aims to fill the gap between the impact of country of origin on the brand image, consumer’s perception and purchase intention, more specially; the research objective is to develop a better understanding of the effect of positive and negative country of origin image on consumer’s buying decisions. Literature background The impact of COO applies to products in general, classes of products, specific types of products, specific brands, image among developed countries, between developed and less developed countries, or among less developed countries (Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Prendergast, Chan and Tsang, 2010, p.181). Country image is ‘‘the overall perception consumers’ form of products from a particular country, based on their prior perceptions of the country’s production and marketing strengths and weaknesses’’ (Roth and Romeo, 1992; Koubaa, 2008, p.140). Brand-image has been described as part of branding strategy at the country level (Meenaghan, 1995; Koubaa, 2008, p.141). Consumers tend to recall the  stored information about the brand and the country in question and then they relate the brand name with the COO to form a brand image and infer the product evaluation (Scott and Keith, 2005; Koubaa, 2008, p.141). Brand image is the reasoned or emotional perceptions consumers attach to a specific brand. It consists of functional and symbolic brand beliefs (Dobni and Zinkhan, 1990; Koubaa, 2008, p.141). Brand image is made up of brand associations. ‘‘Brand associations are the category of brand’s assets and liabilities that include anything ‘‘linked’’ in memory to a brand’’ (Aaker, 1991; Koubaa, 2008, p.141). â€Å"The ‘essence’ of the brand is a single simple value, easily understood and valued by consumer† (Arnold, 1992, p. 17; Pappu, Quester and Cooksey 2006, p.697).When brands are competing in the international arena, marketing managers should understand how to maintain the core essence of their brand across international boundaries. Examining how country of origin impacts brand image and its associated dimensions (e.g. perceived quality, brand associations) should reveal the means to protect or enhance the core essence of a brand. The country of origin of a product is an important marketing element known to influence consumer perceptions as well as behavior. Conversely, an inferior country of origin could tarnish a brand name (Thakor and Katsanis, 1997; Pappu, Quester and Cooksey, 2006, p.697). That is, if the country of origin of a brand were to change from a country towards which consumers have favorable associations (e.g. the USA), to a country towards which consumers have less favorable associations (e.g. Mexico), the brand names in question could be tarnished and the consumer-based equity of these brands erodes. Johansson (1989) speculated that consumers may, depending their circumstances, regard the country cue as a silent attribute of the product in question and that this attribute may influence the consumer through affective processes, as in the case of individuals who hold strongly patriotic feelings about their own country (Han, 1988; Knight and Calantone, 2000, p.129), or through behavioral intentions via processes such as social norms (Fishben and Ajzen, 1975; Knight and Calantone, 2000, p.129). Johansson’s (1989) model is an important accompaniment to the empirical work of Han (1989). Household and organizational buyers’ perceptions of the quality and purchase value of products are more favorable when these products are designed and/or assembled in developed countries than when they are designed and/or assembled in a newly industrializing country. A basic premise of the COO effect is that consumers’ image of a given product’s COO influences their subsequent evaluations of the product (e.g. Gurhan-Canli and Maheswaran, 2000; Josiassen and Assaf, 2010, p.296) as well as their subsequent behavioral intentions to purchase or repurchase the product (e.g. Ouellet, 2007). According to Johansson, country of origin is an extrinsic information cue allowing buyers to make inferences about the intrinsic value of a product (Ahmed and Astous, 1995, p.38). Consumers are more likely to purchase products manufactured by countries having distinctive images for that product(s) rather than countries that do not possess a good reputation for producing the same product(s) (Roth and Romeo, 1992; Chuang and Yen, 2007; Ozmen, 2004; Ahmed, Zbib, Sikander and Noujaim, 2012, p.110). The values which consumers associate with a brand are significantly associated with both the macro- and micro-images of the COO of the brand (Pappu et al., 2007; Ahmed, Zbib, Sikander and Noujaim, 2012, p.110). According to Cordell, consumer preferences are more product specific for industrialized than less developed countries. COO becomes of less significance when the product is widely known (Cordell, 1992; Ahmed, Zbib, Sikander and Noujaim, 2012, p.110). The image of countries as origins of products is one of many extrinsic cues, such as price, brand name that may become part of a product’s total image. Country image in respect of customer purchase intention is one of the most significant subjects among marketers for supporting their manufactured goods. The attention to this issue is because many researchers have demonstrated that a country’s image influences the prior purchase decision of customers. These kinds of investigation about country image and other related subjects dates back over three decades in developed countries  (YAMOAH, 2005). According to Laroche et al. (2005) country image and product beliefs affect product evaluations simultaneously regardless of consumers’ level of familiarity with a country’s products. A product’s COO can have a significant effect on consumer’s purchase and consumption decisions. Further, causal observation indicates the importance of COO in many consumer goods, such as clothing, cars, and food products. For instance, some luxury products (e.g. perfumes, fashion clothing) are strongly and positively tainted by being labeled ‘‘Product of France†. Most of the researchers agree that the â€Å"Country of Origin Image† has a significant impact on consumers’ evaluations of product quality and willingness to buy a product (e.g. Bilkey and Nes, 1982; Han and Terpstra, 1988; Maheswaran, 1994) Conceptual development and hypotheses In this study, Country of origin is the independent variable of interest while the dependent variables include 3 main dimensions (perception, brand image and purchase intention) as shown in Figure 1. Each of these dimensions is expected to be affected by the country of origin image. Since the proposed model is being tested for a certain product category therefore, there relation between COI and the 3 main dependent variables will be affected by the product category in question. In other words we can say that Product category will moderate this relation. Country of origin image (COI) The history of country image dates back to 1970, when Nagashima wrote about it in an academic paper. In a statement about country image he defined it as a â€Å"special image, stereotype and standing, which customers have in their mind about specific country, this picture can be shaped by historical, economical and traditional variables† (L. Y. Lin & Chen, 2006). In addition, country image is one of the first variables that researchers test when it comes to foreign product as well as international business and consumer behavior studies (Kotler, 2011). Studying issues concerning country image  has been prominent in international business for many years (Laroche, Papadopoulos, Heslop, & Mourali, 2005). In our research we investigate COI as an independent variable in order to monitor its effect on buyer’s decision making process which involves two main factors consumer’s perception and purchase intentions and also to examine its influence on the brand image through examining the brand’s perceived quality and brand associations. Brand image Brand image is defined as ‘‘a set of perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumers’ memory’’ (Hsieh and Lindridge, 2005; Koubaa, 2008, p.140). Brand image is determined not by only the brand’s perceived quality, but also by a host of other factors such as product characteristics, packaging, advertising, price and schemas of the typical user. Purchase intention Scholars define purchase intention as personal action tendencies according to brand. They have also concluded that intention is different from attitude. While attitude means evaluation of products, intention is the person’s motivation in the sense of his or her intention to perform behavior. Another definition declares that purchase intention is the individual’s awareness to make an attempt to buy a brand (Shabbir, M. S., Kirmani, S., Iqbal, J., & Khan, B. 2009). In a very competitive global market consumers are facing a variety of alternatives when they decide to buy a certain product therefore it is important to consider COI as a factor that can influence the consumer’s purchase intentions Consumer’s perception Individual act and react on the basis of their perceptions, not on the basis of objective reality. Thus, perceptions are much more important. Perception can be described as â€Å"How we see the world around us†. Perception is defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets stimuli in to a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. Customers are individuals, and each customer perceives things differently in the same  situation. Perception of the product is more important than the product itself (Dave, 2013). Product category Consumers have associations toward entities such as products, places, brands and countries of origin. These associations can have direction and strength. For example, Farquhar and Herr (1993) argued that product category-brand associations can be bi-directional. That is, consumers may recall a product category when they think of a brand name and they may recall a brand name when they think of a product category. Product category-country associations, which refer to consumers’ ability to evoke a country when the product category is mentioned, are of interest when examining the relationships between country of origin and our 3 main dependent variables. Since consumers are known to associate countries with certain product categories and vice Versa (Terpstra and Sarathy, 2000), consumers’ â€Å"product category-country† associations appear to be bi-directional. Based on the literature review and our research objectives, a conceptualized model for this research was developed and is shown in Figure 1. Previous research results support the following relations: CI directly and positively impacts brand image (Roth and Romeo, 1992; Hsieh et al, 2004). CI directly and positively impacts purchase intentions (Laroche et al, 2005). Brand image directly and positively impact purchase intentions (Esch et al, 2006). Hypotheses H1: COO image significantly affects how consumers perceive the products H2: COO image has a significant influence on the formulation of the brand image H3: The country-of-origin asserts a significant impact on the consumer’s purchase intention. H4: Product category will moderate the effect of COO image on the purchase intentions, consumer’s perceptions, and brand image We expect that the perceived quality levels of a brand will vary by the country of origin of the brand. That is, the perceived quality level of Ericsson made in Sweden is likely to be higher than the perceived quality  level of Ericsson made in Mexico or Hungary, for the product category â€Å"mobile phones†. Furthermore, consumers’ perception of the quality of products is known to be product-category specific (Kaynak and Cavusgil, 1983; Pappu, Quester and Cooksey 2006, p.701) Furthermore, consumers’ product category is believed to moderate the effect of the country of origin on consumer-based brand image. For example, the consumer’s perception of a brand made in a country with positive COO image in a certain product category (e.g. car/Germany) is likely to be substantially higher than that for the same brand made in a country with a negative COO image in that same product category (e.g. car/Mexico), in cases where consumers perceive substantive differences between the two countries in terms of their product category associated with COO (Pappu, Quester and Cooksey 2006, p.702). As concerns brand-origin effects, Takhor and Lavack (2003) declared that brand-origin is one such cue that plays potentially important role in determining a brand’s image. Samiee et al. (2005) found that consumers classify brands with their COO basing on the brand pronunciation or spelling and its similarity with the brand-origin language (Koubaa, 2007, p.142). When the brand is created, it comes out to consumers in association with its brand origin (Koubaa, 2007, p.143). Farquhar and Herr (1993) claimed that brand image will have different dimensions in consumer’s mind (Koubaa, 2007, p.143). Because brands have different perceptions among consumers across brands and across countries of production, and consumers are likely to be different as they have different backgrounds and are under different circumstances of consumption; we expect that brand image will differ across brands and across countries of production (origin) (Koubaa. , 2007, p.143). Nowadays, the international trade market is very competitive and there are many new ideas on the market to attract customers. In this case, customers have many alternatives for buying products; however, there are many elements that have an effect on product success and customer purchase intention. Other researchers believe that purchase intention is â€Å"what we think we will buy† (Park, J. 2002). It also describes the feeling or perceived likelihood of purchasing the products that are advertised, moreover, purchase shows the level of loyalty to products. Other scholars like Daneshvary and Schower (2000) believe that purchase intention has a relationship with demographic factors like age, gender, profession and education (Lu, M. 2007). There is another statement that shows that particular features of products, perception of consumers, country of origin and perception of country of origin, all have an influence on customer purchase intention (C. L. Wang, Li, Barnes, & Ahn, 2012). Purchase intention can also be defined as the decision to act or physiological action that shows an individual’s behavior according to the product (X. Wang & Yang, 2008; Rezvani, Dehkordi, Rahman, Fouladivanda, 2012, p.208). Sample characteristics Respondents were asked in the end of the questionnaire to deliver some personal information related to gender, age, income and education. Thirty eight respondents participated in the investigation. Regarding gender, the sample was selected randomly. Females’ percentage was 57.9 while the males’ percentage was 42.1. As for the income category 15.8 percent earned less than 5000 LE per month, 34.2 percent earned between 5000 LE and 10000 LE while 50 percent earned more than 10000 LE per month. And for the education 5.3 percent of the respondents were high school graduates, 71.1 percent are bachelor degree holder, 23.7 percent are master degree holders. Data collection: Our choice of COI stimuli and our variables (BI, CP and PI) was guided by our conceptual framework, specifically we wanted to test and compare the effect of COI on the three variables shown in figure (1) to enhance the generalizability of our results. To test our hypothesis we asked Egyptian  consumers to answer a questionnaire (see appendix) with regards to the latest purchased items. In addition to hypothesis advanced in this study we explore the reliability of the measurements of each variable to conduct a reliable computation regarding each variable in the questionnaire. Reflective scales were to operationalize the constructs in our conceptual framework. Except for the demographic indicators (gender, age, income and education) Measurements  COI 1. economic development 2. Political structure 3. Industrialization 4. standard of living 5. Product made in this country is reliable 6. Products made in this country of good quality 7. Products made in his country Prestigious 8. It is great to have a products from this country Khosrozadeh Shirin and Heidarzadeh Hanzaee Kambiz, (2011), P.614 Consumer perception 1. Important/ not important 2. Overall quality 3. Durability 4. Technological sophistication 5. Prestigious Gray A. Knight & Roger J. Calantone (1999) P. 144 Brand image 1. brand X offers high quality 2. brand X offers reliable products 3. I feel proud to products from brand X 4. I trust the company which makes brand X (Aakar,1991, 1996; Yoo et al. 2000) Purchase intention 1. the possibility I will buy this product 2. the possibility I recommend this product Khosrozadeh Shirin and Heidarzadeh Hanzaee Kambiz, (2011), P.614 Product category 1. Expensive/ inexpensive 2. Good quality/bad quality 3. I look for the COO to choose the best product available in a product class Ravi Pappu, Pascale G. Quester, Ray W. Cooksey, (2005) Country of origin image We used Khosrocadeh Shirin 9-items scale. The 9-items of the scale measure the extent to which the respondent perceives a particular product category from a particular country to be a good purchase choice, of high quality better than the same product category originating from other countries. The COI is formed according to the economic level of the country, the political system of the country, the standard of living and finally the technological advancement of that country. The items are anchored with strongly agree and strongly disagree. The scale displays lower reliability (ÃŽ ± = 0.66). In comparison with the previous studies reliability, our scale measurements are lower (Alpha = 0.83). Consumer perception We used five items scale from Ali Riza (April 2006). The items measure the importance of looking for COI as an external attribute. It also measures the perceived quality of the product from a certain country, so as the consumer’s association of COI with the technological sophistication of the product, and finally if they don’t have knowledge about the product’s COO; whether they will refuse to purchase the product or agree to purchase this product. The items anchored strongly agree and strongly disagree, the scale displays a good reliability (Alpha = 0.75). In comparison with the previous studies reliability, our scale measurements are lower (Alpha = 0.92). Brand image We mapped the brand image depending on two main indicators; brand perceived quality and brand associations using Aaker, 1991, 1996; Yoo et al. , 2000.  Seven items scale including the brand’s good quality, reliability, durability, its excellent features and prestige. Items was anchored with strongly agree and strongly disagree, the scale displays a good reliability (Alpha = 0.74). In comparison with the previous studies reliability, our scale measurements are higher (Alpha = 0.70). Purchase intentions The purchase intention was examined using Khostozodel Shirin. Two items scale including the possibility of the purchase and the recommendation of the purchased product. Anchored with very low and very high, the scale displays a very good reliability (Alpha = 0.89). In comparison with the previous studies reliability, our scale measurements are higher (Alpha = 0.87). Product category The research investigated the product category variable using Ray W. Cooksey, 2005. Scale with four items including the value of certain product category relative to the COI, the importance of this product category and whether it depends on the COI or not was also investigated. And finally the choice of the product class according to the COI. Ray W. Cooksey research suggested that four items scale are adequate when measuring this moderating variable. It was examined according to five-point likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The scale displays a very poor reliability (Alpha = 0.5) which was very close to the researcher’s reliability (Alpha = 0.56) Correlation Analysis Correlation coefficient of Pierson was applied to study the relation between constructs. The results are listed in Table 3. As it is stated in the table, Pierson coefficients between constructs are significant at 95% confidence level. Several of the constructs in the research were correlated. The highest correlation was 0.36, which was between the COI and brand image, and also between the consumer’s perception and brand image. This correlation appears to be weak, positive and significant, while the lowest correlation was 0.08, which was between COI and consumer’s perception. This correlation appears to be weak, positive and insignificant. Correlations between our independent variable â€Å"COI† and the other 3 main dependent variables are as follows: there is a weak and positive yet insignificant correlation between the COI and consumer’s perception (0.08). The previous studies findings concerning this correlation were (0.48) which is higher than our correlation. These analyses were conducted by (Knight, Calantone, 1998, p.136). When comparing the correlations between COI and brand image with the previous studies, we found that our correlation was significant, positive and weak amounted to (0.36) while (Ahmed, Zbib, Sikander, Noujaim, 2012, p.118) concluded that it was (0.344) which is lower than our correlation. Table (3) shows that there is a significantly weak positive correlation between country of origin and purchase intention with (0.28) while the previous studies correlation was (0.375) by (Shirin, Kambiz, 2011) there correlation was weak significant and positive. COI has a weak and positive yet insignificant correlation with product category amounted to (0.14). It also has an insignificant weak positive correlation with brand image and purchase intention while, it has a negative weak correlation with consumers’ perception. According to the previous studies; the interaction between COI and product category was insignificant  at (correlation less than 0.05). Indicating that the product category will moderate the relation ship between the COI and consumer’s perception, brand image and purchase intention (Pappu, Quester, Cooksey, 2006, p.705) Two new significant correlations were deduced from the analysis; the brand image has a significant, weak, positive correlation with the purchase intentions (0.27) and also with the consumer perception (0.36). The prior correlation corresponds with previous studies (0.53) which states that â€Å"Brand image directly and positively impacts purchase intentions† (bu Esch et al. 2006). In light of our findings it appears to us that; COI has a positive impact on focal country’s brand image. This would be the case for Germany that has a strong reputation for cars in general (product) but also produces strong brands like BMW or Mercedes. Alternatively, a country like Turkey may develop a strong reputation for a certain type of product, such as carpets, but lacks the relevant skills to turn this product-related capability into strong and well-known brands (strong product image/weak brand image) Conceptually interesting are also cases where a country, such as Austria, manages to develop strong brands, for example Red Bull or Swarowski, but is not at all well known for its expertise in the respective product categories (weak product image/ strong brand image). It would be of immediate benefit for companies operating in such countries to analyze whether image advantages accrued by strong brands can also be used to support other less well-known brands in these product categories. Hypothesis Testing To test the hypotheses of the research, we used the correlation analysis in table 3 as an indicator. This testing resulted in several significant correlation and other insignificant ones and this analysis enabled us to reject and accept our previously stated hypothesis statements. Hypothesis H1 stated that COO image significantly affects how consumer perceives the product. The major substantive finding from the correlation analysis is that the correlation between the 2 variables is insignificant therefore H1 is  rejected. This finding doesn’t confirm the predictions of previous researchers that the country of origin image significantly impacts the consumer perceptions (including two important dimension consumer’s attitude and beliefs). Gary A. Knight and Roger J. Calantone (1999,p.131) stated that COI is a significant antecedent of attitudes and beliefs which form the consumer’s perceptions related to the product in question and this appear to be insignificant in our hypothesis testing. Hypothesis H2 predicted the existents of a significant influence of the COI and the brand image. Our findings support this hypothesis therefore H2 will be accepted. The correlation confirms that the COI is directly related to the brand image which supports the previous studies findings (Roth and Romeo, 1992; Hsieh et al, 2004) which stated that CI directly and positively impacts brand image. Hypothesis H3 stated that the country of origin asserts a significant impact on the purchase intention. The result of the correlation analysis shows a statistical significant relation between the two variables which supports our hypothesis therefore H3 is accepted. This finding confirms with the predictions of previous researchers that CI directly and positively impacts purchase intentions (Laroche et al, 2005) and also with â€Å"the country of origin has a significantly positive impact on purchase intention† stated by ( Shirin; Kambiz, 2011 p.605). Hypothesis H4 offered that the product category will moderate the relation between the COI and consumer perceptions, brand image and purchase intentions. The results supported the predictions made in H4,therefore H4 is accepted. This confirms with the pervious studies findings (Pappu, Quester and Cooksey, 2005 p.705). Conclusion The verification of the hypotheses in this paper leads to five conclusions: (1) Country-of-origin image has an insignificant influence on consumer perceptions (2) Country-of-origin image has a significantly positive influence on brand image; (3) Country of origin image has a significantly  positive influence on purchase intentions; (4) Brand image has a significantly positive influence on both consumer perceptions and purchase intentions; (5) product category moderates the relation between COI and the other 3 variables. The country-of-origin effect is an environmental factor that firms have to deal with whenever they trade in non-domestic market. Yet we can do little to change COI since it is defined by a set of historical and cultural attitudes rather than by anything lying within the control of an individual firm. The good news, however, is that consumer place (COO) below such things as quality and reliability as factor influencing purchase decision for instance Mercedes make good cars but don’t necessarily transfer such positive impression to other German products. Our findings confirms that consumers use a product’s COO as a cue in purchase decisions but this cue can be superseded by the brand image which proves to have a significant relation with the purchase intentions. Also COI insignificantly contribute to the consumer’s perceptions of a certain products this means that other information about the product reliability, quality or brand image will take precedence over COI in determining how people perceive a certain product. So where does this leave us? Companies cannot ignore COO effect but equally they should not rely on those effects in the promotion of their brands because for instance simply being an Italian clothing brand may be an advantage but it isn’t enough for the firm to rely solely on it when promoting its products. Any advantage from COO needs reinforcement through the marketing process this justifies the weak positive correlation between the COI and the brand image. In conclusion, COI is just one of many factors that influence the consumer’s decision to purchase or not to purchase a particular brand. And, yet again we find that consumers do not place a huge emphasis on where a product comes  from- unless they have nothing else on which to base a decision. â€Å"The origin of a product has never been more important in the minds of consumers† (Winter, 2004, p. 46). â€Å"Ninety three percent said it is good to know the origin of products such as where it came from and who made it. People are no longer content to pay for something superficial and hollow† (Winter, 2004, p. 46). Holt et al. (2004, p. 96) Elaborated on this sentiment by stating that consumers expect global brands to tell the myth from the particular places that are associated with the brand. In this research we are presenting both point of views supporting and against the idea that COI is considered an important external attribute that buyers take into account when making a purchase decisions. The research did not attempt to support a certain point of view that is why the predicted hypotheses were not initially directional. One of the limitations of the study was the number of samples collected. In our research we managed to collect 38 questionnaires which are relatively small in comparison to our population. More over the age range and income level range were narrow ranges also the reliability of the measurements imitated from previous papers of 2 variables including product category and COI was very weak; future studies shall consider such limitations. Reference Adamantios Diamantopoulos, Bodo Schlegelmilch, Dayananda Palihawadana,(2011), The relationship between country-of-origin image and brand image as drivers of purchase intentions. Ahmed, d’Astous, (1994), Comparison of country-of origin effects on household and organizational buyers’ product perceptions. Alexander Josiassen, A. Assaf, (2009), Country-of-origin contingencies: their joint influence on consumer behavior. APIL, (2006), Foreign Product Perceptions and Country of Origin Analysis across Black Sea; Studies on Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Russia, and Turkey Gerared P. Prendergast and Alex S.L. Tsang, (2010), The interactive influence of country origin of brand and product involvement on purchase intention. Hong, S. and Wyer, R.S. (1989), â€Å"Effects of country-of-origin and product attribute information or product evaluation: an information processing perspective Kamal Ghalandari and Abdollah Norouzi , (2012), The Effect of Country of Origin on Purchase Intention: The Role of Product Knowledge. Katja Jà ¤rvelà ¤inen, (2012), Effects of Country of Origin on Consumer Product Evaluations. Khosrozadeh Shirin, Heidarzadeh Hanzaee Kambiz, (2011), The Effect of the Country-of-Origin Image, Product Knowledge and Product Involvement on Consumer Purchase Decisions. Knight, Calantone, (1999), A flexible model of consumer country- of- origin perceptions. Pappu, Quester, Cooksey, (2005) Consumer-based brand equity and country-of-origin relationships. Piron, (2000), Consumers’ perception of the country of origin effect on purchase intentions of (in) conceptions products. Rezvani, Rahman, Fouladivand, Habibi,(2012), A Conceptual Study on the Country of Origin Effect on Consumer Purchase Intention. Schaefer, (1995), Consumer knowledge and country of origin effects. Zafar U. Ahmed, Imad J. Zbib, Arif Sikander, Ralph Gilbert Noujaim, (2012), Does country of brand origin (COBO) matter for the Lebanese consumers?

Price Elasticity to Identify a Brand’s Competitors Essay

Firms today are in their perspective industries to maximize consumer satisfaction, increase revenue, and shareholders profits. These tasks require attention to detail when pricing their products. There are always competitors lurking and waiting by the wayside to gain market share and a competitive advantage. When identifying brands competitors, price elasticity is a major determinant. Demand for a product or service constitutes what the company’s price will be and whether the price will be higher or lower than the competitor’s price. In terms of the elasticity, price increases may decrease demand and price decreases may increase demand. However, according to Kotler, The introduction or change of any price may initiate a response (favorable or unfavorable) from customers and competitors† (Kotler, P. and Keller, K., 2012) Ultimately, the concept of price elasticity can identify a brand’s competitors along with marketing research to identify consumer needs, wants, and desires, as well as current industry and competitor’s going- rate pricing. Reference Kotler, P. and Keller, K. (2012). Marketing Management 14E. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc. How might marketers use conjoint analysis to improve pricing strategies? When determining pricing strategies marketers must perform research that allows the consumer to voice their opinions in reference to what they need and how important the product or service is to their well-being. One method of doing so is through conjoint analysis. â€Å"Kotler defines this method as a  means to ask customers to rank their preferences for alternative market offerings or concepts, then they use statistic analysis to estimate the implicit value placed on each attribute† (Kotler, P. and Keller, K., 2012). Marketers have their work cut out for them when a firm or pricing department requests their assistance to establish a competitive advantage for their product or service. In order for a firm to know and understand what value or benefits the customer expects when utilizing their products and services the use value propositions is of the essence. According to the strategy and performance coaching company Edborrows,† items that firms need to consider when applying customer value propositions are as follows: †¢ All Benefits – †¢ Favorable Points of Differentiation – †¢ Resonating Focus †¢ Resonating focus highlights one or two critical differences between the firm’s offerings †¢ Generic Value Propositions †¢ Operational Excellence †¢ Customer Intimacy †¢ Product/Service Innovation (Barrows, 2010) Price elasticity of demand is a way to determine marginal revenue. Optimal revenue and, more importantly, optimal profit will occur to the point when marginal revenue = marginal cost, or the price elasticity of demand The proportion of the total sales of a product secured by one particular company or brand

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SWOT Analysis of Hewlett Packard - Essay Example HP has the ability to manufacture new designs and innovations of personal computers and accessories such as printers at affordable costs. Moreover, the company’s after sales services provide the best services to their customers hence increasing their loyalty. After sales service centers and helplines reduce many customer problems (Kern et al, 23). Weaknesses Hewlett Packard’s lack of presence in some major market segments limits its profitability in some countries. In spite of its outstanding portfolio, HP does not have significant production of software products as compared to major competitors such as IBM. Some of its competitors produce smart software products and offer extensive consultation services to their customers. A substantial percentage of its income (29%) is obtained from its personal systems division. Therefore, it does not command the market of industrial and large organizations that use highly sophisticated computing devices. The company mostly develops personal computers is already encountering competition from new players in the industry such as Lenovo. It has poor presence in the tablets market where many of its competitors are gaining ground. It is also facing competition in the manufacture of printers from other companies including Epson and Samsung.

The Ok Tedi Mine Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Ok Tedi Mine Case Study - Essay Example Moreover, the mine contributes to costs such as environmental pollution and degradation of land which is risk for the human and animal population. I do think the benefits brought to PNG by the OK Tedi Mine override the costs to the society and environment. This is because the mine is one of the most controversial mining projects where a huge tonnage of wastes are released to the Ok Tedi River which has great effect on the local community living along the river, on the biological structure of the mine and the continuous siltation causes flooding and death of aquatic life (Harding, 1998; p. 308). This is more costly than the benefits. The different stakeholders groups include the owners of land around the Ok Tedi River, the government of PNG, employees in the mine, the indigenous people around the area and the firms contracting the mining projects. The contracting firms contributes to employment opportunities for local people hence raising their living standards, the local community contributes to the labor force in the mines while the land owners give up their land for the benefit of the citizens of PNG. There are some critical problems of the EIA process noted in the DVD. The escalating bank flooding and the transformation from the tropical lands to wet lands of which it contributes to more aquatic vegetation in the area which causes loss of arid land for farming along the Ok Tedi River. This limits the diversification of exports and subsistence farming by the indigenous people of PNG hence low living standards. The dual role of the PNG government in the Ok Tedi Mine as both the owner of the mine and the regulator has some specific positive and negative impact. The positive side is that it reduces the3 exploitation of the local employees and subsequent repatriation of profits by the mining company. The negative side is that it limits the standard of investment through excessive regulation. The best

The real Conscientious Objection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The real Conscientious Objection - Essay Example Every household is predominantly blessed with this â€Å"necessity† of life. From entertainment to important events, the popularity of television has grown inevitably beyond boundaries to such an extent that it has become a preference for people around the globe, making it more difficult to improve television standards in favor of the societies. Neil Postman, a renowned critic, has taken the much needed step to illuminate the disasters of this media in the form of his collection – â€Å"The Conscientious Objections†. True to its name, this book truly highlights numerous issues that burden the conscience. With respect to media, Postman intelligibly covers the minute analysis for news and commercials as a mode of communication. The appreciable element of Postman’s critique is the unbiased appreciation for the limitations of television commercials and news while determining the moral issues attached with it. The objections raised by Postman are numerous, all of vital importance, such as delivering incomplete and fabricated information. It is important to note that these are not same, but both do result in the seclusion of truth from people. Postman also highlighted the cultural changes caused by television evolving entire societies, however, these cultural manipulations do not stem from television itself but rather from the developments occurring around the world. Details are covered in the paper. The Real Conscientious Objection: The commercial television of the current era has negative impacts on the society in a number of ways. From obsessive television watching to being exposed to inappropriate information – the television has been accredited for the unhealthy attitudes developing in the individuals of our society. The analysis of ethicality of the current practices of concerned television authorities in the light of Neil Postman’s â€Å"Conscientious Objection† is discussed hereafter. The most important conscie ntious objection posed by television is the incompleteness and at times, fabrication of information projected by this medium. With regards to television commercials and news both, the projected idea of the subjects is more often insufficient to cover the actual object. This results in individuals carrying around a distorted and deceiving perception of the reality, believing it to be the truth. This hampers the intellect of these individuals in their personal and public decision making processes, incurring losses on themselves. Even though the case is similar for both news and commercials, â€Å"The whole problem with news on television comes down to this: all the words uttered in an hour of news coverage could be printed on one-page of a newspaper. And the world cannot be understood in one page† (Postman 72). It is therefore needless to say that the news projected on television is rarely ever complete. Additionally, â€Å"Unless (people) also read newspapers and magazines, t elevision viewers are helpless to understand their world† (Postman 78). This implies the severity of this phenomenon, indicating the briefness of television broadcasts. Relying solely on television as the authentic source of information is an unwise practice on behalf of a major part of population. The case of television commercials is more drastic for its creative and delusional content. â€Å"Television commerci

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Education as Initiation - Assignment Example Peters (1965) presents the idea of education as initiation. In his book, he describes the teacher as an initiator of education and the students as aspirants. His work revolves around the process of being initiated into a given tradition whereby the values of this tradition are passed along. In addition, the author elaborates several education criteria depending on nature of students: Firstly, a state of mind that is desirable develops a valuable aspect that must be initiated. Secondly, education implies that one is being brought into the light because he or she possesses the appropriate skill or knowledge in a manner that involves some degree of understanding. Thirdly, education will always involve seeing everything that is happening in a broader perspective. This implies a cognitive awareness that relates to other fields; knowing what and how. From Plato’s point of view, the goal of schooling is simply to enlighten the mind. Induction prepares a learner by providing brief ideas about the covered information in a particular field. In addition, Plato believes that schooling imparts the knowledge of reality to learners. Learners are always taught what is real or rather the things they will face in the major task. For Instance, when an induction is performed for students in a mathematics class, it gives them an outline of the things they should expect during the entire course. This is outline is real as it is a forecast of the entire subject. Lastly, schooling inculcates the relevant values to students. Learners, irrespective of the level or field of study, obtain the societal values. These values are acceptable in the society as they prepare the students for future or rather initiate the learner into his or her place in the society. Therefore, all these are related to the concept of schooling for induction as it prepares the students for what is ahead.